Environmental and Public Health Benefits of Tire Recycling

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It is estimated that there are more than a billion passenger vehicles in the world. Imagine the number of tires that will be eventually disposed of. In the United States alone, an estimated 300 million tires are discarded every year. Where do you think those tires would end up?

With the size, volume, and inherent durability of tires getting rid of them is no walk in the park. Fortunately, tire recycling has made substantial improvements in the past several years thanks to innovative technologies.

The next time you are to replace your car tires, make it a point to recycle them. Those tires may be used as a planter in your yard. If you can’t think of a way to recycle tires, you can take them to a local tire retailer or contact your city’s waste management office.

Scrap_Tires

Tire recycling has been beneficial to the environment and public health in more ways than one. Learn about the major environmental and public health advantages of tire recycling in this post:

1. Conserve landfill space

Because of their round and hollow shape, tires can take up significant space in landfills. According to Popular Mechanics, around 11 percent of old tires are dumped into landfills where it would take hundreds of years for the rubber to decompose. And because of their size, tires can easily fill up an infinite resource like landfill space.

With tire recycling, landfill space can be conserved. Big and bulky tires are eliminated, leaving more space in landfills for things that cannot be easily recycled.

Additionally, the elimination of tires in landfills can prevent water pollution. It is said that tires can take up to 75 percent of the airspace in landfills. The void space in tires holds large amounts of methane gas which causes the rubber to bubble to the surface. This can damage the landfill liners designed to prevent contaminants from causing pollution to local surface and groundwater.

2. Prevent diseases caused by pests

Discarded old tires left in backyards, empty lots, and riverbeds are not only an ugly sight; these also serve as homes to rodents and insects that can carry diseases.

Like most unused structures such as unused vehicles, old tires make good homes for rodents. Tires give warmth to rats and mice, so you should not be surprised to realize that the old tires you left in your backyard could be where those household pests are nesting in. Rats also use a tower of tires to take a path into homes where they can ravage for food.

Rodents carry numerous diseases that can be passed on to humans. Rodent urine, for instance, can cause leptospirosis or Weil’s disease. This ailment can bring about symptoms such as life-threatening meningitis, kidney failure, and liver damage. Salmonellosis is another disease that can be passed on to humans by rodents, particularly when a person gets in contact with droppings or feces of rats or mice. Other ailments that may be passed on from rodents to humans are rat-bite fever and Rickettsial diseases.

Insects, particularly mosquitoes, can also breed in old tires. There are three main reasons why mosquitoes breed in old tires. One, unused tires can easily be filled with water which can be a good breeding ground for female mosquitoes. Moreover, tires can become filled with leaves that mosquitoes can feed on.

It should be noted that both female and male mosquitoes eat plant matter like plant leaves for energy. Female mosquitoes, meanwhile, suck blood for breeding purposes.

Finally, tires are thick enough to provide insulation and protection for the eggs of mosquitoes. It is not surprising, therefore, that those insects love to breed in old tires. Mosquitoes are notorious, too, for carrying countless diseases. From Dengue fever to Zika to Yellow Fever to Malaria, the list of mosquito-borne diseases is long.

With tire recycling, you can prevent old tires from becoming homes to rodents and mosquitoes and consequently, eliminate the risks of those pests from spreading various diseases.

3. Prevent pollution caused by tire fires

Old tires sitting in empty lots are also prone to fires. Accidents, arson, or lightning, among others, can cause these tires to catch fire.

Tire fires have two types, both of which have damaging effects on the environment. The first type, slow-burning fire or pyrolysis, results to smoke carrying toxic materials. The second type is a fast-burning fire which contains harmful elements like sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide.

hazards of tire burning

Putting off tire fire is no easy task. Allowing tires to burn themselves out means letting substantial amounts of smoke, soot, and toxic gasses to damage the environment. Smothering the fire with dirt but this can also cause the tires to smolder underground for many years. Using a combination of water and foaming agent may put the fire out but this may contaminate groundwater.

Recycling tires, in short, will mean that fewer tires in the world end up as fire hazards.

4. Create new products

Tire recycling can also turn scrap tires into useful products such as crumb rubber and tire-derived fuel. On the industrial side, tire-derived fuel is a by-product of tire recycling that releases few harmful emissions. Compared to normal fuel from coal, tire-derived fuel is more energy efficient. It is used in cement kilns and paper mills as a supplemental fuel. It can improve boiler efficiency, lower production costs, and reduce air emissions.

Other industries also extract and reuse materials from old tires such as steel and nylon. Recycled steel produced by tire recycling plants is brought and reused by steelworks firms. Nylon, meanwhile, is used as noise insulation in industrial plants.

There are other useful products created from scrap tires. Old tires can be reused into rubberized asphalt which offers more skid resistance compared to normal paving materials. DIY crafters, on the other hand, reused old tires into garden planters, outdoor furniture, and home playground equipment.

Also Read: Advancements in Tire Shredding Technology

Conclusion

Indeed, our society has found different ways to recycle one of the toughest everyday materials today. Tires don’t have to end up in landfills because there are many ways to recycle and reuse them. Recycling tires is good for our environment and our health.

So, the next time you are to replace your car tires, make it a point to recycle them. Those tires may be used as a planter in your yard. If you can’t think of a way to recycle tires, you can take them to a local tire retailer or contact your city’s waste management office.

Carbon Capture and Storage: Prospects in the GCC

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GCC countries are burgeoning economies which are highly dependent on hydrocarbons to fuel their needs for economic growth. GCC nations are fully aware of the mounting consequences of increasing levels of CO­2 on the environment, mainly attributed to soaring energy demand of domestic and industrial sector. Regional countries are undertaking concrete steps and measures to reduce their carbon footprint through the introduction of renewable energy and energy efficiency measures. Among other options, Carbon Capture and Storage, popularly known as CCS, can be an attractive proposition for GCC nations.

carbon capture and storage

What is CCS

Carbon capture and storage (or carbon capture and sequestration) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources, such as fossil fuel power plants, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere, normally an underground geological formation. CCS is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification.

Among notable CCS projects world, In Salah project in Algeria is a fully operational onshore gas field with CO2 injection. CO2 is separated from produced gas and reinjected in the producing hydrocarbon reservoir zones. Since 2004, about 1 Mt/a of CO2 has been captured during natural gas extraction and injected into the Krechba geologic formation at a depth of 1,800m. The Krechba formation is expected to store 17Mt CO2 over the life of the project.

 

Carbon Capture and Storage Prospects in GCC

GCC accounts for 0.6% of the global population but ironically contributes 2.4% of the global GHG emissions per capita.  GCC countries are among the top-14 per capita emitters of carbon dioxide in the world. The GCC region is witnessing rapid economic growth and massive industrialization which has led to almost 8% growth in power consumption each year. The region is heavily dependent on hydrocarbons combustion for power generation and operation of energy-intensive industries.

schematic of carbon capture and storage

Schematic of CCS Process

There is an urgent need for carbon abatement measures for the industrial sector in Middle East nations as increasing carbon dioxide emissions will have serious repercussions for GCC and adjoining regions. Some of the potential impacts can be rise in sea level, droughts, heat waves, sandstorms, damage to ecosystem, water scarcity and loss of biodiversity. Carbon dioxide emissions reductions can be achieved from point sources such as refineries, power plants, manufacturing industries etc.

At the regional level, GCC nations have both the drivers and environmental gains to adopt the CCS technologies. Some of the GCC countries are already engaged in R&D initiatives, for example, Saudi Arabia has KACST- Technology Innovation Center on Carbon Capture and Sequestration while Saudi Aramco have their own CCS R&D program for CCS. In Qatar there is the Qatar Carbonate and Carbon Storage Research Center while Bahrain has Sitra Carbon Capture System.

To sum up, CCS is a viable option to help GCC countries maintain their hydrocarbons-driven economies while enabling low-carbon electricity generation from existing hydrocarbon-based powerplants.

سوسة النخيل الاحمر : التهديد الحقيقي لشجر النخيل في الشرق الاوسط

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التهديد الحقيقي في الوقت الحاضر لشجر المخيل هو بسبب سوسة النخيل . هذا المخلوق موطنه اساسا من جنوب اسيا , ولكنه نشر اجنحته عبر العالم . تستطيع ان تدمر هذة السوسة بساتين النخيل , او زيت النخيل او جوز الهند , خلال ال30 سنة الاخيرة استطاعت هذة السوسة و التي احيانا يطلق عليها سوسة التمر من اختراق 60 دولة وقد وصلت الى الشرق الاوسط , شمال افريقيا , وجنوب اوروبا عبر الكاريبي .

طوارئ في الشرق الاوسط 

بدات هذة السوسة في الظهور في السعودية و الامارات في منتصف الثمانينات , اليوم مزارع شجر النخيل في جنوب غرب السعودية اصبحت مصابه , في نهاية التسعينات وجدت هذة السوسة في الاردن و اسرائيل و السلطة الوطنية الفلسطينية .

سوسة النخيل الاحمر لدية إصابة عنيفة لاكثر من 40 نوع من النخيل , إنها مدمرة على الاقتصاديين المحلي و العالمي وتسبب خسائر في ملايين الدنانير سنويا , مزارعي النخيل في هذة المنطقة يقدر الجدية في المشكله .

تحدي  للكشف

سوسة النخيل ليس من السهل تحديدها في المزارع , انثى السوسة تبيض 300 بيضة داخل جذع النخله , تفقص البيض بعد 2-5 ايام , لذلك , عندما تكون في مرحلة اليرقه , تفتح جحور اخرى في جذع النخيل , هذة السوسة تاكل و تدمر النخله من الداخل , مرحلة اليرقات حوالي 55 يوم و بعدها تنتقل الى المرحلة الانتقالية , السوسة البالغه تظهر بعد 2-3 اسابيع , لذلك دورة الحياة حوالي 4 اشهر .

بسبب ان مراحل تطور السوسة تتم خلال الجذع يصبح من الصعب اكتشافها , عندما يتم اكتشافها يكون متأخر كثيرا .وتكون النخلة ضعيفة و تصبح بنية اللون .

الضعف هو نتيجة الفجوات التي بداخل الجذع , ويصبح ما داخل النخلة عبارة عن مادة لزجه (عصيده ) وتكون هناك رائحه سيئة مثل اسهال طفل صغير .

نظام محاصرة 

كيف استطاعت المزارع اكتشاف وجود هذة الحشرات داخل النخيل ؟ انه سؤال ممتع , كما تستطيع الكلاب ان تشم الروائح الكريهه ,العمال الموسميين الجيدين مع خبرة و دقة في السمع يستطيعوا ان يسمعوا القضم داخل الجذع . عندما يتم اكتشاف ذلك فانه يتم قطع المقطع , ووضع بقية الأشجار في الحجز لحين أن يتم تعقيمها في المبيدات الحشرية , يستطيعوا ان يضعوا كمائن مخصبة في المبيدات الحشريه . لالتقاط السوسة الناضجه .

الطرق الحالية لالتقاط السوسة , تتضمن مصائد فيرمونات , البخاخ الكيميائي و الذي يتضمن ايضا الاوراق ,ويتم حقن الجذوع . السيطرة البيلوجية مثل البكتيريا , الفطريات و الديدان الخيطية لا تستطيع التصرف بعدوانية بشكل كاف ضد عدوانية السوسة . غزو السوسة تحتاج الى معالجة عنيفة و طويله باستخدام السموم الكيماوية لهزيمة هذا الغازي القوي.

التجاهل ليس نعمه

كما ان هناك انواع لديها اشكالية , الناس غير مدركين لإمكانيات التهديد لصناعة الزراعه , في جنوب اسيا , هذة السوسة من الاطعمه الشهية ,لذلك الناس بذلوا جهود كبيرة لاستيراد السوسة عبر الحدود , قوانين قطع الحدود موجوده لكن من  خلال المسافرين الذين ينقلون اشجار نخيل صغيرة كزينه و لا يعلموا ان هناك اصابة في هذة الاشجار . كما تم تقديم العديد من الانواع , تنمو في بيئة جديدة و تتكاثر بسرعه .

جنوب كاليفورنيا لديهم ممارسة كبيرة للتأثير المدمر لسوسة النخيل الاحمر . وحيث ان الجو عبر العالم زادت رطوبته حول العالم , اصبح اكثر ملائمه لاجتياح الاصناف .

وقت للفعل

المجتمع الدولي و الفاو يقومون بتقديم استراتيجيات لتحديد استيراد شجرالنخيل بناءا على حجمها , المقترح الحالي هو حظر استيراد أي نخيل , انها اكبر من قطرها من 6سم من الدول التي تعاني من المرض , ولكن تعزيز التشريعات و التعامل مع العدوى تحتاج التمويل و طرق ماهرة في الزراعه و دوائر الجمارك .

ترجمة: المهندسة رنا الحجايا

حاصله على الماجستير في هندسة مصادر المياه و البيئة ,و حاصله على الدبلوم المتخصص في العمل الاجتماعي للاجئين و المهاجرين من الجامعه الالمانية . مواليد الكرك عام 1977  وهي من المهتمين في المشاريع البيئية و خاصه مشاريع المياه , سبق ان عملت كرئيسة بلدية لدورتين و هي من الناشطات في المجال السياسي و البيئي , لها العديد من المقالات السياسية و الاجتماعية . و عملت كمستشارة لتنمية المجتمع المحلي و البيئة و كعضو ناشط في العديد من الجمعيات الخيرية.

الحس البيئي – البعد النفسي والروحي

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الحس البيئي كمفهوم كان محط حوار جمعني عبر وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي مع الخبير العماني في الشأن البيئي المهندس يحيى البلوشي، ووجدت ان ذلك يدخل ضمن واقع مؤثرات العلاقة التي تربط الانسان مع المحيط البيئي ما دفعني الى اعتبار ان الحس البيئي يتمثل في منظومة المشاعر والاحاسيس النفسية والروحية والقيم والمفاهيم المرتبطة بالعلاقة الانسانية مع البيئات الطبيعية والمحيط البيئي للانسان وتلك العلاقة والارتباط الوجداني يترك اثره المباشر والفعلي في تكون قيم السلوك الرشيد والمسؤولية الاخلاقية للفرد والمجتمع في تبني ثقافة العلاقة الموزونة والنهج الواعي في تنظيم العلاقة السليمة مع النظم البيئية وصونها من مختلف اشكال التلويث والتدمير وبناء ثقافة مجتمعية تساهم في تحقيق إستدامة معالم النظام البيئي.

المحفز الفعلي في تكوين الحس البيئي للفرد والجماعة يتمثل في القيمة المادية والمعيشية والروحية للبيئات الطبيعية كمصدر للحياة واستدامة البقاء، وأيضا في عنصر الخطر الذي تتسببه الممارسات غير الرشيدة وتدمير نظم البيئات الطبيعية المصدر الحيوي لحياة وبقاء الانسان، وانعدام المسؤولية الاخلاقية في العلاقة مع نظافة المحيط البيئي وتلويث محيطه الحيوي والتسبب في الاخلال بالامن البيئي للانسان.

الأثر الفعلي لذلك الواقع يمكن ان نلمسه في سياق قراءة الاحداث المرتبطة بواقع العلاقة مع معالم النظام البيئي، وتتجسد تلك الاحداث في جوانب العلاقة غير المسؤولة وغير الاخلاقية مع نظم البيئات الطبيعية والمحيط البيئي للانسان المتمثلة في استخدام البيئة في العمليات الحربية والقاء النفايات في البيئات الطبيعية وإغراق وطمر النفايات الخطيرة في أراضي ومياه الدول، وتنفيذ الانشطة التنموية غير المدروسة والتسبب في تدمير معالم البيئات الطبيعية وتلويث المحيط البيئي بالمخلفات والغلاف الجوي بالانبعاثات الخطيرة-

وكذلك المواقف الملموسة للانسان التي تجسد مشاعره وأحاسيسه في تفعيل المواقف الإيجابية التي تدفع باتجاه تجنيب النظام البيئي خطر تدهوره، وذللك الواقع يندرج ضمن معادلة ردات الفعل الانساني في قمع الانشطة المدمرة للبيئة وبناء المقومات القانونية والادارية والفنية والرقابية كادوات مهمة في تنظيم العلاقة مع معالم البيئات الطبيعية وصون إستدامة النظام البيئي.

هنا يمكن القول ان الخطر الذي يهدد مصالح الانسان يؤدي الى ردت الفعل وتلك هي المشاعر الانسانية التي تجسد واقع الحس البيئي، وان ما توصلت اليه البشرية من تفاهمات وتحديد المعايير الدولية في شأن تنظيم العلاقة مع النظام البيئي وبناء القواعد القانونية والادارية والرقابية كأدوات ردع للمخالفات والتجاوزات في العلاقة مع البيئة وفرض المسار السليم في تنظيم العلاقة المتبادلة بين الانسان والنظم البيئية لصون حياة الانسان وإستدامة بقائه على البسيطة تمثل تجسيدا فعليا لمضمون وجوهر الحس البيئي.

الامن الغذائي في الشرق الاوسط

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food-security-arabعلى الرغم من حقيقة ان منطقه الشرق الاوسط تنعم بميراث جغرافي غني بالنفط و الغاز والمعادن الا انها تعاني في الوقت نفسه من شح في المياه ومناطق قاحله تأخذ حيزا كبيرا من مشاكلها الديموغرافيه و الاجتماعية والاقتصاديه. فمن الصعب أن تنمو المحاصيل في منطقة الشرق الاوسط بسبب نقص المياه ومحدوديه الاراضي الصالحة للزراعه. و من الجدير بالذكر ان المنطقه  معرضه بشده للتقلبات في الاسواق الدوليه  وذلك بسبب اعتمادها الكبير على الحبوب المستورده و المواد الغذائيه.

وفقا لتقرير صدر عام 2009 من قبل البنك الدولي, ومنظمه الامم المتحدة للغذاء والزراعه (الفاو) و الصندوق الدولي للتنميه الغذائيه فأن  ” الدول العربيه من اكبر مستوردي الحبوب في العالم. معظم الاستيراد  اي على الاقل 50% من الغذاء تستهلك من قبلهم”.  في الماضي القريب اعتادت بلدان مثل مصر, سوريا او العراق ان تكون مخزن الحبوب وصومعته  ولكن قطاع الزراعه في تلك البلدان عانى بسبب سوء اداره الحكومات,وفرض الاسعار  وقله الاستثمارات. و في الحقيقة, فان كافة الدول العربيه تعد مستورد رئيسي للحبوب.

تواجه دول الشرق المتوسط ارتفاع الاسعار في اسواق الغذاء العالميه. ويعزى ذلك الى المنافسه  على المنتجات الغذائيه نفسها (الطحين, الذره, فول الصويا,البروتين الحيواني, الخ…) من مناطق اخرى في العالم وخاصه اسيا, حيث ترتفع مستويات الدخل ويزداد  الطلب على غذاء اكثر وافضل. وبالطبع فأن ارتفاع اسعار الغذاء ادى الى زياده عدد الفقراء المدقعين  ملايين في دول الشرق الاوسط الاقل ثراء.

و لجعل الامور اسوأ بشأن مشكلة  الامدادت الغذائية, فان الاسواق العالميه شهدت اضطرابات شديده في السنوات القليله الماضيه من عواصف , وفيضانات و جفاف من روسيا الى الارجنتين الى استراليا. هذه الظواهر الطبيعيه مزقت نسيج  اليات السوق العالميه التي ترتكز عليها  التجاره الدوليه للغذاء . حيث ان اسعار المواد الغذائيه الاساسيه اصبحت في مستويات خطيره تقترب او تتجاوز ذروتها عام 2008.

من كل دول الشرق المتوسط  التي  تعاني من ازمه الغذاء الحاليه  تعد اليمن الاسوا شكلا.  يقول تقرير برنامج الامم المتحده للغذاء العالمي ان سبعه ملايين يمني من اصل واحد وعشرين مليون هو ” جائع فعلا” , مما يجعل اليمن واحدا من الاحد عشر بلدا في العالم  الاكثر انعداما للامن الغذائي .

يجري ضخ المياه الجوفيه بما يتجاوز معدل التغذية, و اضحت المياه الجوفيه الاعمق تستنزف  ونتيجه لذلك  فان منسوب المياه الجوفيه يهبط بمعدل 2 متر سنويا, ومع هبوط منسوب المياه فان محصول الحبوب تقلص بنسبه  الثلث في الاربعين سنه الماضيه في حين واصل الطلب على الغذاء في الارتفاع. وكنتيجه لذلك , فان اليمن  تستورد ما يزيد عن 80 % من محاصيلها .

عدد قليل من المزارع في المملكه العربيه السعوديه لا تروى, حيث ان  معظمها يعتمد على الابار الجوفيه.  وتعتبر مياه البحر المحلاه المستخدمه  لسد احتياجات المدن السعوديه من المياه ذات كلفه عاليه لتستخدم في عمليه الري. وقد ادى انعدام الامن الغذائي  المتزايد في السعوديه الى شراء او استئجار اراضي في بلدانٍ مختلفة, بما فيها افقر البلدان واكثرها جوعا كاثيوبيا و السودان.

في حقيقة الامر فان السعوديه تخطط لانتاج الغذاء لها بالاعتماد على اراضي ومياه الدول الاخرى وذلك لمواجهه زياده الطلب على الغذاء مع ارتفاع الكثافة السكانيه لديها. لسوء الحظ  فان نقل الاراضي الزراعيه  من زراعة الكفاف الى تصدير المحاصيل ادى الى مزيدٍ من نقص الغذاء. و من خلال محاولتها لضمان امنها الغذائي من خلال سيطرتها  للعقود الزراعيه  فان الدول الغنيه بذلك تخلق نقص جديدا  في الغذاء في اجزاء اخرى في العالم.   

نظرا لانخفاض تدفق نهر الفرات و دجله , فان المحاصيل الزراعية السوريه و العراقيه تضررت بشده . ونظرا لعدم ضمان ماقد يحصل في المستقبل بشأن امدادت النهر من المياه فان المزارعين في كلا  البلدين بدءوا بحفر الابار و ضخ المياه للري.

ستكون الدول العربيه من اكبر المستورديين للغذاء , وبالتالي ينبغي عليها تحسيين موانئها  و اماكن التخزين و اداره مخاطر الاستيراد.

 لقد تراجع محصول سوريا من الحبوب بما نسبته الخمس منذ  ذروته في عام 2001 حيث بلغ 7 ملايين طن. و في العراق تراجع ايضا محصول الحبوب الربع منذ بلغ ذروته 4.5 مليون طن في عام 2002. الاردن و مع 6 ملايين نسمه  فانها في وضع لا تحسد عليه زراعيا فمنذ اربعين عاما او اكثر كانت تنتج 300,000 طن من الحبوب سنويا , اليوم فانها تنتج 60,000 طن مما يستوجب استيراد ما يزيد عن 90% من احتياجاتها للحبوب.

مع تزايد نسبة السكان وزياده الضغط على موارد المياه  , يتوجب  على الحكومات اتخاذ الاجراءات العاجله   لمنع ازمه الغذاء التي تلوح في الافق. فقد كشف تقرير حديث  للبنك الدولي قصور كبير في العديد من موانئ الدول العربيه  وطرق تخزينها للحبوب  مقارنة مع غيرها من مستوردي الحبوب مثل هولندا و كوريا الجنوبيه.

مرافق الموانئ , بطئ خدمة  الجمارك و عمليه النقل غير الفعاله من الميناء الى الصوامع كلها عوامل تسهم في تدهور الوضع الغذائي. ستكون الدول العربيه من اكبر المستورديين للغذاء , وبالتالي ينبغي عليها تحسيين موانئها  و اماكن التخزين و اداره مخاطر الاستيراد.

ترجمة

سلام عبدالكريم عبابنه

مهندسه مدنية في شركة المسار المتحده للمقاولات – مهتمه في مجال البيئه و الطاقة المتجدده

التطور: من الأفكار الفلسفية إلى التركيب التطوري الحديث

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منذ الأزل, تطور العلم تدريجياً بدءًا من الفكر الفلسفي في الحضارات القديمة، مرورًا بمراحل التضخم المعرفي في العصور الوسطى، ووصولًا إلى الثورة العلمية في العصر االحديث. وبفضل هذا التطور، وصلنا إلى العلم التجريبي الحديث، الذي وسع آفاق المعرفة الإنسانية وحقق إنجازات غير معهودة في مختلف المجالات.

العلم التجريبي هو المنهج العلمي المتبع للتحقق من صحة نظرية ما، فإما أن يثبتها فتصبح حقيقة علمية أو ينفي صحتها فتغدو معلومة خاطئة. يعتبر العلم التجريبي عملية ديناميكية تعتمد على الملاحظة والتجربة لاكتشاف وفهم الظواهر الطبيعية, ويتميز هذا النوع من العلم بالتحقق من صحة النظريات العلمية من خلال تجارب قابلة للتكرار،بحيث يمكن للعلماء إعادة إجراءها والحصول على نتائج مماثلة تدعم أو تدحض الفرضية.

human evolution

كما يتميز العلم التجريبي بتطوره المستمر تزامناٌ مع ظهور بيانات جديدة, بل ويتم تعديل النظريات أو استبدالها عند اكتشاف أدلة موضوعية أكثر دقة بعيدًا عن الآراء الشخصية، مما يضمن حيادية ودقة النتائج وموثوقيتها.

يسعى العلم التجريبي إلى تفسير الظواهر الطبيعية وفهم قوانينها بطريقة منظمة وموثوقة، مما يسمح بإجراء تنبؤات علمية يمكن اختبارها تجريبيًا.

تعتبر النظرية من الأركان الاساسية للعلم التجريبي, تعرف النظرية العلمية بأنها تفسير منهجي منظم يعمل على شرح مجموعة كبيرة من الظواهر الطبيعية والحقائق كما انها قادرة على التنبؤات التي يمكن اختبارها تجريبياٌ. علاوة على ذلك، تتميز بأنها قابلة للتنقيح والتطوراستناداً إلى الأدلة الجديدة، ومن ثم استخدامها لعمل تنبؤات جديدة قابلة للاختبار. وعليه ومن خلال دورة مستمرة من التنبؤ والاختبار والتحسين تغدو النظرية أكثر دقة وشمولية. وبالتالي، يجب أن يكون هنالك تكاملاً بين العمل النظري والتجريبي. ومن الواجب التنويه أن التعريف العلمي للنظرية يتناقض مع التعريف الذي يستخدمه العامة, فالعامة يرون أن النظرية هي مجرد رأي شخصي أو تخمين أو افتراض غير مؤكد وتحتاج إلى اثباتات.  بينما تبدأ النظرية العلمية بالملاحظة، ثم الفرضية لتفسير ظاهرة متكررة في الطبيعة لا يوجد لها تفسير علمي واضح ثم اختبارها بالأدلة حتى تنال القبول العلمي, أما في حال وجود تفسير علمي أفضل سيتم إما تعديل النظرية أو تغير منظورها (paradigm shift).

تاريخ نظرية التطور

تُعد نظرية التطور حجرالزاوية في العلوم الحياتية الحديثة، وهي مدعومة بأدلة قوية من شتى المجالات العلمية. يمتد تاريخ نظرية التطور عبر قرون، حيث بدأت كتصورات فلسفية، مرورًا بنظريات لامارك وداروين، ووصولًا إلى التركيب التطوري الحديث وعلم الجينوم. كل مرحلة ساهمت في بناء فهمنا الحالي لعملية التطور. فيما يلي استعراض لتاريخ نظرية التطور:

1. الأفكار الفلسفية القديمة

ناقش بعض الفلاسفة الإغريق فكرة تغيّر الكائنات الحية عبر الزمن. فلقد طرح أناكسيماندر (610–546 ق.م)[i] أفكارًا بدائية عن التطور, واعتقد أن نشوء الحياة بدأ من الماء وأن الكائنات تطورت عبر الزمن من أشكال أبسط. أما نظرية (Spontaneous Generation) فهي تتبنى فكرة نشوء الكائنات الحية تلقائيًا من مواد غير حية, ودحضت من خلال العلم التجريبي وباتت جزءًا من تاريخ العلم.

2. العصور الوسطى

اعتمدت الأفكار السائدة آنذاك على التفسيرات الدينية، لكن بعض العلماء المسلمون مثل الجاحظ وابن خلدون طرحوا أفكارًا عن التغير والتكيف. فلقد أشار الجاحظ في كتابه الحيوان  إلى فكرة “الصراع من أجل البقاء” وأن الكائنات تتنافس على الموارد المحدودة وهو مفهوم قريب مما سيُعرف لاحقًا بالانتخاب الطبيعي. كما لاحظ الجاحظ أن الحيوانات تتكيف مع بيئتها، وأن بعض الصفات تظهر نتيجة لهذا التكيف. أشار أيضاً إلى أن البيئة تؤثر على تطور الكائنات. أما ابن خلدون, وبالرغم أن تركيزه الأساسي كان على تطور المجتمعات البشرية إلا أن أفكاره تعتبر إرهاصات مبكرة لفهم التطور، مما يجعله أحد الرواد الذين ساهموا في تطوير الفكر التطوري. لاحظ أن المجتمعات تمر بمراحل من النمو والانحدار، مشبهًا إياها بدورة حياة الكائنات، وأشار إلى أن البشر يتكيفون مع بيئاتهم الجغرافية والمناخية، مما يؤثر على ثقافاتهم. كما ناقش فكرة الصراع من أجل الموارد بين المجتمعات، ورأى أن التغير يحدث بشكل تدريجي وليس فجائيًا.

3. بدايات الفكر التطوري (1700-1800)

اقترح بوفون أن الأنواع قد تتغير مع الزمن بسبب تأثير البيئة، وقال في هذا الصدد: “الطبيعة تتحرك بخطوات بطيئة، ولكنها لا تعود أبدًا إلى الوراء.” كما كتب إراسموس داروين، جد تشارلز داروين، عن إمكانية تطور الكائنات من أصل مشترك، مقدماً أفكارًا مبكرة ساهمت في تمهيد السبيل لنظرية التطور التي طورها حفيده لاحقًا.

4. تأسيس نظرية التطور1800-1900

  • نظرية الوراثة المكتسبة (:(1829-1744طور لامارك نظرية تطور تعتمد على فكرة أن الكائنات تتغير بناء على استخدام أو عدم استخدام الأعضاء استجابةً لبيئتها، وأن هذه التغيرات تورث للأبناء. تم دحض هذه الفكرة لاحقًا بعد اكتشاف قوانين الوراثة حيث تبين أن الصفات المكتسبة لا تورث.
  • توصل ألفريد راسل والاس بشكل مستقل إلى فكرة مشابهة للانتقاء الطبيعي، مما دفع داروين إلى نشر نظريته.
  • نظرية داروين: قدم داروين مفهوم الانتقاء الطبيعي.وتقترح النظرية خضوع الكائنات الحية للتطور يتم من خلاله انتقاء الأفراد الأكثر تكيفًا مع بيئتهم للنجاة والتكاثر, وذلك بسبب وجود تباين طبيعي في الصفات أساسه التباين الجيني بين أفراد النوع الواحد، حيث تمنح بعض هذه الصفات ميزات تزيد من فرص البقاء في ظل الظروف البيئية السائدة. وفقًا لداروين، يحدث التطور مع تراكم هذه السمات المفيدة في المجموعة عبر الأجيال. وهكذا، يعمل الانتقاء الطبيعي كقوة دافعة للتطور، مما يؤدي إلى تغيرات تدريجية في الكائنات الحية على مدى فترات زمنية طويلة، ويسهم في تنوع الحياة على الأرض.

5. القرن 20

في عام 1942,دمج جوليان هكسلي نظرية داروين مع علم الوراثة المندلي بما يسمى بالتركيب التطوري الحديث (Modern Synthesis)، والذي يفسر التطور والتنوع من خلال الطفرات والانتقاء الطبيعي.ومع تقدم العلم،وسع اكتشاف الحمض النووي (DNA) فهمنا لكيفية حدوث التغيرات الجينية المؤدية للتطور.

وفي عام 1972, طور العالمان ستيفن جاي غولد ونيلز إلدردج نظرية التوازن المتقطع Punctuated Equilibrium، وتقترح أن أنواعاً جديدة تظهر فجأة في السجل الأحفوري في مجموعات صغيرة ومعزولة جغرافيًا، ثم تمر بفترات طويلة من عدم التغيير. بعد ذلك، يتمدد النوع الجديد وينتشر، ويتنافس مع أنواع الأسلاف، مما يؤدي إلى انقراضها. تفسر هذه النظرية الفجوات في السجل الأحفوري التي لا يمكن تفسيرها بالتغير التدريجي.

6. القرن 21

وبسبب تطور تقنيات تسلسل الجينوم, تمكن العلماء من دراسة التطورعلى المستوى الجزيئي مما عمق فهمنا لعلاقات التطور بين الكائنات.

نظريات تم تفنيدها أو تعديلها:

نظرية التطورالمتجه (Orthogenesis) :فندت.

نظرية القفزات التطورية (Saltationism):عدلت.

نظرية التدرج (Gradualism)عدلت.

ساهمت هذه النظريات، على الرغم من دحضها أو تعديلها، في تطور الفكر العلمي وفهم أفضل لآليات التطور.فالعلم يتقدم من خلال البناء على المعرفة السابقة والتصحيح المستمر للأخطاء. من الفلسفة القديمة إلى العلم الحديث، تظهر رحلة تطور نظريات التطور عبرالعصور تقدم الفكر البشري في بناء فهم أعمق للعالم مما يؤكد أن العلم هو جسرنا نحو المستقبل.

المراجع العربية والأجنبية

  1. Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. London: John Murray.
  2. Darwin, E. (1794). Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life. London: J. Johnson.
  3. Green, S., Fagan, M. B., & Wylie, C. D. (2015). Evolutionary systems biology: Historical and philosophical perspectives on an emerging synthesis. Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution, 324(7), 565–577. https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.b.22627
  4. Bowler, Peter J. Evolution: The History of an Idea. 3rd ed., University of California Press, 1984.
  5. Graham, Daniel W. “Presocratic Philosophy.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman, Fall 2023 Edition, Stanford University, 2023, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/presocratics/#Ana.
  6. Ibn Khaldun. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated by Franz Rosenthal. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967.
  7. Al Jazeera. (2023, February 22). هل يُسقط الإلحاد أهم قواعد منهج العلم؟[Does atheism overthrow the most important rules of the scientific method?]. Al Jazeera Net.
  8. Dajani, R. Why I teach evolution to Muslim students. Nature520, 409 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/520409a
  9. الجاحظ، أبو عثمان عمرو بن بحر.). كتاب الحيوان(عبد السلام هارون، دار الكتب العلمية.
  10. العمري، أحمد خيري. 2016. لا شيء بالصدفة. دار عصير الكتب للنشر والتوريع.
  • [i] The Presocratic Philosophers by G.S. Kirk, J.E. Raven, and M. Schofield (Cambridge University Press).

5 Unique and Advanced Solar Lights You Must Have

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The world is turning to solar power due to depleting natural resources. Energy efficiency is something that everyone is thinking about at the current moment. It is due to the rising energy bill prices and the costs associated with alternative energy sources. The most viable option for people these days is to make use of the energy available for free.

Despite the initial investment being higher, people are turning to unique and advanced solar lights. These advanced solar lights can perform multiple tasks, like being able to provide power for the CCTV to operate in different places, and more.

Must Have Solar Light Models

Top 5 Must Have Solar Light Models

There are various types of solar lights available on the market. Each of them is unique in their design, type, and the way they operate. We look at some of the most significant kinds you might want to have in your office, residence, or other places.

Solar lights are categorized into two main types: those used indoors and those used outdoors. However, despite being categorized into two different types, they both use the same technology. With the light and heat from the sun, they convert it to energy.

1. Solar Light With CCTV

We discussed the importance of solar power and how it has revolutionized the world. Due to its immense popularity, manufacturers have come up with unique ideas. Integrating solar light with CCTV camera has been one of the best innovations in recent times.

Security is one of the primary concerns for many homes and offices around the world. With an integrated CCTV camera in the solar light, you get a multipurpose, unique solar light for your residence or commercial establishment.

In some cases, if you do not want the lights to be on all night, you can opt for the ones with motion detectors. These motion detectors will switch on when motion is detected and switch off after a few minutes of no motion detection.

The integrated camera works in coordination with the solar light. In some cases, the sensors for the light and the camera are the same. However, some manufacturers offer solar lights with different sensors for cameras and different ones for the lights.

2. Solar Parking Lot Lights

Having a good parking light is crucial, not just for commercial establishments but also for homes that have a driveway. These lights need not be too bright but offer just the required amount of light while you park your vehicle and walk back out.

Installing solar parking lot lights can be one of the best things that you can do for your home or your commercial establishment. These lights store enough energy to light up the parking lot throughout the whole night. Often, these are powered by LED bulbs.

However, you have the choice of selecting between different bulb options from different manufacturers. It can be between halogen, LED, or others that the manufacturer provides. It depends on personal preference, energy consumption, and convenience.

3. Solar Light That Synchronizes with the Sun

Some manufacturers can provide you with solar lights that do not require you to switch them on or off. Once the sun rises, the lights turn off automatically. Likewise, the light turns off once the sunsets. It is one of the most energy-efficient products on the market.

These lights may be a costlier option, but they require little to no maintenance. Once they are installed, they work automatically without any human intervention. It is also an option people prefer to use at their homes and offices. These are typical outdoor units.

They can also be installed in gardens, patios, or other outdoor spaces like lawns. However, these can be a little costlier as there is more complex technology in their operation. It is considered the only downside to these solar lights.

4. Solar Shed Lights

Solar shed lights are typically used indoors in sheds and other closed spaces. These are often designed to detect motion and switch on automatically when you open the door. They can be connected to solar panels and will work perfectly fine when used indoors.

Many homeowners have begun using these solar lights. It is in a bid to ensure that they are not connected to their regular energy or utility bills. After installation, these lights do not require maintenance or do not consume your regular energy.

5. Solar Lawn Lights

Although these are not very advanced or unique in technology, we decided to list them here. It is because you can have them work with sensors as well. Installing them on your lawn can mean that they switch on and off when motion is detected.

solar lights in parking lot

They can add essence to your lawn with the lighting option they provide. You can take a stroll on your patio and see the lights coming up. Moreover, anyone who tries to break into your house would be in for a rude surprise when the entire lawn lights up.

These are not as costly, can store energy, and be charged enough to work with the lowest available sunlight. You can have them installed in both gardens, lawns, pathways on the terrace, and so on. You would be surprised at the amount of light they are capable of producing.

What To Consider Before Purchasing Solar Lights?

A few things should be considered before you purchase solar lights. One of the main things that you should look at is the batteries. The energy efficiency of the battery is vital as it determines how long the solar lights can be powered at night. You can consider motion detector lights if you are in a bid to conserve power. So, longevity and the type of battery used would be important considerations.

Conclusion

We must begin to use solar power for all our needs. Governments all over have started to insist on the importance of using solar power. Once you decide to install solar-powered lights at home, you can choose the most advanced options available. These can help you save a lot of money that you would otherwise spend on energy bills.

You will also be able to add an extra layer of security to your home when you choose to install solar-powered lights with CCTV cameras integrated into them. You can select the best manufacturers for your purchases of solar lights to get the best quality.

5 Ways to Conserve the Environment From Your Home

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The environment has numerous benefits that it offers to us which is the reason as to why it needs to be well conserved. There are a lot of measures that one can take to help in environmental conservation. However, it is a task that begins from our own homes. We have a lot of pollutants in our homes and we can prevent these from going into the environment through simple acts.

Below are 5 simple tips for environmental conservation from your home:

1. Minimizing wastage of food

Food waste causes a lot of environmental pollution. Statistics have proven that a significant percentage of food gets wasted every day around the globe. Wasted food is thrown away into landfills where it emits emit methane gas, a highly potent greenhouse gas, which causes climate change.

We can ensure that we reduce the level of methane gas that goes into the atmosphere by managing our consumption of food by preparing food that is just enough.

food waste disposal

2. Installing bins

Bins also help to ensure that you do not litter unnecessarily, thus ensuring that the environment is kept clean. There are various places where one can purchase affordable bins that they can use in their home. Jack Martin from Backyard Bins (https://www.backyardbins.com.au/) advises clients that when planning to declutter, one should go through their possessions and select the items that they most often use and separate them from the items they do not use. They should then take to storage the possessions that are still valuable and throw out the possessions that are not valuable. These can be put in bins and recycled or put to better use.

Plastic-recycling-bin-Oman

What makes this company stand out is the fact that they aim at recycling waste and thus helping to reduce environmental pollution. Their bins come in varying sizes where you can choose the size that will be perfect to suit your needs. Their bins can be used to collect garbage not only from your home but also from your garden thus making it more convenient.

3. Recycling and reusing

You can also go an extra mile in caring for the environment by recycling. There are various items in a home that you can use more than once so as to reduce your domestic waste. Some of these include plastic containers and plastic bags.

Disposing these off after using them once is a hazard to the environment as plastic is not biodegradable. You can also use the services of a bin and rubbish collection company that recycle the waste that they collect from households.

4. Getting into gardening

There is usually a lot of space in our homes that is left bare and unused. However, we can turn such spaces outside our houses to little and manageable gardens. Having a garden gives a reflection of green around us.

A green look in our surroundings give us the feel of being more responsible of our environment. Having a garden will give you additional waste in your household and you can dispose of this waste by having bins that will cater for both your household needs and your garden needs.

5. Using better cleaning methods

When you are cleaning your household, there are cleaning ingredients that you can use that can be hazardous to our surrounding. These include bleach, soaps and other cleaning agents that contain toxic substances that can cause harm to human health if they are deposited to the environment.

How COVID-19 Improved Building Cleanliness

Instead of using strong and harmful cleaning agents, one can decide to make their own soap using substances that are more environmental friendly. One can also carry out research to find out the varieties of cleaning agents available that are environmentally friendly.

6. Limit shopping

It is enjoyable to go on a shopping spree every now and then. However, carrying out excessive shopping can be a cause for environmental pollution. When you shop a lot of products for your household, it means that you increase your household waste due to the packaging tins and papers that you have to throw away.

Having a lot of shopping will also lead to wastage as you will not have the zeal to reduce food wastage. When people carry out excessive shopping, it also leads to an increase in production levels. Overproduction causes pollution as it means that the industries have a lot of waste to dispose off. The resources that are also used to make these products will also be depleted.

Conclusion

The environment is the source of everything that we require in our daily life starting from our food, to our clothes and to the paper that we write on. For this reason we should practice daily habits from our homes that will help us to conserve the environment. Each of the above methods will take little effort to practice. All that these methods need is a little discipline and also the passion to protect one’s surroundings.

Stepwells for Secure Water Supplies – Rediscover an Ancient Technology

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Stepwells are a remarkable and well-proven traditional water management practice, used in the Indian sub-continent and the Middle East, that deserves wider recognition and use. In this article, we will discuss the history and evolution of stepwells.

Stepwells and steptanks have stairs leading from ground level to the bottom of a pool of water.[1] Stepwells cut into the rock or with a masonry or impermeable construction might better be known as steptanks or cisterns. The more important stepwells are porous and linked to the groundwater (aquifer).

chand baoli rajasthan

To build this kind of system the soil or rock type, depth to groundwater, and construction materials had to be within acceptable ranges. Water seeps from the groundwater through the porous rock and subsoil into the well during dry times. When the pool level rises during the rainy season water from the well helps recharge the groundwater. They can be found in India, Pakistan[2] and Bangladesh[3], and other parts of South Asia and the Middle East.[4],[5]

groundwater level of stepwell

Stepwells are most common in arid or semi-arid regions where the rainfall varies dramatically by season and year and the depth to groundwater rises and falls.[6] In the area mentioned in the figure below, the depth to groundwater increased 13 meters in one year. The water level would fall even further during long term droughts and recover during intense wet periods with more powerful monsoons.

stepwells and rain variability

Stepwells (baori, baoli, bawri, bavadi, बावड़ी vav, اسٹیپ ویل, kalyani) come in almost any shape imaginable, from trenches to troughs, L’s, circles, circular shafts and inverted pyramids.[7] Most had many sets of steps while others had just one. The many flights of stairs enabled many users to fill their pots with water at the same time during peak use. The women who carried the water would have been very strong  with daily stepsercise. They usually carried 15 liters (15 kg) of water or more in pots on their heads. A stacked doubled set of pots could make 20 liters or more. A mother and eldest child could carry enough water for a household on minimum use with just one trip.[8] With extreme care or severe shortage 4–6 liters per person day may suffice.[9],[10]

women in stepwell

The purpose and ownership of the stepwells varied widely. Some were private, but most were public. First and foremost they provided a secure source of water to drink. Studies have shown that Indian women in rural areas without stepwells can make up to six trips for water a day, requiring 16 kilometers of walking every day.[11] Stepwells could eliminate the effort and risk involved in getting water from a distant spring, river or lake while providing water even during a prolonged drought.

Stepwells were installed in forts to resist sieges and others provided water for caravans on trade routes. Water could also be used to a limited extent by farmers, perhaps just on kitchen gardens. Stepwells were involved in many religious ceremonies (Hindu and Muslim) and cultural events. During the heat of summer the stepwells could provide relief, in some cases people were allowed to wash or swim. Many also provided space for sitting or sleeping in the cool air deep in the well. The wells also provided a place for women to meet and talk, and they must have been alive with children, women, the elderly and travelers.[12]

Thousands of stepwells were once in use in India and many thousand remain, often abandoned.[13],[14] Most were created to collect water during the torrential monsoon rains and then to maintain a water supply into the dry months or years.[15] Many are still in use today.[16] Most were less than 15 meters deep but some were 30 meters or more.[17] The depth to groundwater in Bengaluru City shows the fluctuation that could occur depending on the monsoon rains.[18] Many stepwells were fed by rainwater catchments or nearby waterways. Water from stepwells fed primarily from the aquifer would be filtered through the rocks, clean and safe to drink. They helped keep communities alive during prolonged droughts.

stepwell with water

Stepwells represented a large investment of labor and materials. They required considerable skill in design and construction; but used simple materials that could be used and maintained with available resources. The design and engineering for many was done by experts and the work itself called for skilled masons and stepwell specialists.[19] Many stepwells were funded by women. Stepwells resist, but are not immune, to earthquakes and floods.

One of the most magnificent stepwells is the Chand Baori in Abhaneri, Rajasthan. Look at it on Google Earth 7.0073° N, 76.6065° E.[20] (figure 10) It was built by King Chanda of the Nikumbha Dynasty between 800 and 900 AD and was dedicated to Hashat Mata, the Goddess of Joy and Happiness.[21] Its 13 terraces of stairs reach a depth of 30 meters. This stepwell was made of porous volcanic rocks and stones, which allowed water to seep through the rocks and maintain the well. The upper walls are very steep (close to 80°) and the lower walls are closer to 45°. The well provides almost 15,000 cubic meters of storage. If the well went from full to dry it would provide 5,000 person years of water at 8 liters per day.

chand bawri rajasthan

The magnitude of the work involved is clear. For Chand Baori 15,000 tons of rock and soil were dug and removed. If the Queen’s Pyramid in Giza was inverted it would fit in the Chand Baoli with room to spare. The methods for building step wells would vary by soil and rock type and the function of the well. Paintings show the use of ramps and oxen during similar construction projects at that time, but most of the stepwell labor was probably just people. Even today deep wells are dug and lined with minimal equipment but great effort and skill.[22],[23]

stepwell digging

The engineering skill to dig and line a deep well hole should not be under-estimated. In areas with less stable soils it would have been even harder. In areas with stable soils the excavation could be dug and then the rock or brick walls could be gradually built up and backfilled. The use of water levels would allow for accurate placement. Surveying skills were clearly very good. Many stepwells also included rooms, balconies and sculptures on one side. These would have to be ordered and made so the construction could proceed.

In other cases the stepwell may have been built from the top down.[24],[25] The excavation for the well would be dug to the depth of a man’s height. Then a circular wooden platform or form made of non decaying Semal wood or ceramic, would be placed.[26] A rock, block or brick wall would then be erected around the well. Then further digging would be done under the wooden platform, and when the digging was up to a depth of a man, the wall would be placed and then the platform or form would be lowered again. This is similar in some ways to building a caisson for bridge foundations.[27]

Stepwell builders with construction underway must have worried as the monsoon approached. Heavy rains could flood the work area and destabilize walls. In some cases it appears all the blocks were numbered and could be correctly placed even under some water. To reach greater depths the work could only be completed in a prolonged drought. This may have provided much needed work for people when it was so dry the crops failed.

Stepwells met local needs for water with little harm to the environment. Unlike many advanced technologies that attempt to control ecosystems, stepwells emphasize conservation. The tapered construction of the well makes it clear that water conservation is critical as the water level drops, the pool gets smaller and the hauling of water gets harder.

Climate change adds new challenges and potential value for stepwells. If the groundwater falls too far it will no longer feed a well. In many cases stepwells offer an essential water source. They have been neglected while most people have access to a water tap, but these modern water systems are under stress. Increasing variability of rainfall and drought presage growing problems in many dry lands.

A 10 to 15 per cent increase in monsoon precipitation is predicted for some areas of India, but more worrisome is a simultaneous precipitation decline of 5–25 per cent in drought-prone central India and a sharp decline in winter rainfall in northern India.[28] The stepwells act as buffers to these climate changes and extreme events. Resurrecting old stepwells[29] and building new stepwells and stepped tanks would be a very wise investment.

Recognizing this the Rajasthan government, through its flagship program Mukhyamantri Jal Swavalamban Abhiyan, has taken initiatives to make villages self-sufficient in water by reviving the non-functional rainwater harvesting structures.[30] The Bansilalpet stepwell restoration was very impressive, with 2,000 tons of debris removed.

Stepwells could also be of value for rainwater harvesting systems in developed countries, providing a hedge against social and environmental disasters. Houses being built in some areas in Australia now must have a rainwater harvesting system and cistern.[31] This makes sense, but there are advantages for doing this kind of work at the neighborhood scale with stepwells.[32] Stepwells can provide a check on flooding while saving a vital resource.

With thanks for many suggested readings, comments and permission to use images

References

[1] Piplani, M. and Kumar T.. Stepwells: Reviving India’s cultural and traditional water storage systems. pp. 135—142 In C. Ludwig and S. Valdivia Editors. Progress Towards the Resource Revolution. Part 3 – Water and Regional Aspects. Paul Scherrer Institute, World Resources Forum. (2019).

[2] Osman Baig, A.. The deepest stepwell (Baoli) of Pakistan located at Rohtas Fort. May 5. (2013). http://aliusmanbaig.blogspot.com/search/label/stepwell%20in%20pakistan. Accessed Dec 8, 2024/

[3] Miah, A. H. and Zulfiqar, A. Showly. Into the baolis; stepwells of Bangladesh. Journal of History, Art and Archaeology. 1(2):123–136. (2021).

[4] J. B. Rainwater Harvesting Company. Baoli Water Harvesting. JB Group, Kalamasserry, Ernakulam. https://rainwaterharvestingjb.com/rwh-types/baoli-water-harvesting/ Accessed December 6, 2024.

[5] Earis, P. Atlas of Stepwells. 2025. https://stepwells.org/atlas.php?cmbm=1

[6] Singh, A. K., Monitoring groundwater fluctuations over India during Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) and Northeast monsoon using GRACE satellite: Impact on agriculture. Quaternary International. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.10.036    Accessed dec 2, 2024

[7] Lautman, V. India’s Forgotten Step-wells. Merrell (2013).

[8] Upadhyay, B. Gender roles and multiple uses of water in North Gujarat. Working Paper 70. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI)

23534114 (2004) Accessed Dec 18 2024.

[9] Ortega, A., Rybczynski, W., Ayad, S. Ali, W. and Acheson, A. The Ecol Operation. Minimum Cost Housing Group, McGill University. Montreal. 128 p. (1975).

[10] Lee, R. NASA just recycled 98% of all astronaut pee and sweat on the ISS. News. space.com. June 25 (2023).  Accessed Dec 22, 2024.

[11] Barton, A.. Water in Crisis – Women in India. https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-india-women   Accessed Dec 18, 2024.

[12] Sushant School of Art and Architecture. Story of Stepwells Bawdi, Baoli & Kalyani- The Forsaken Sisters. Sushant University. (2018). https://sushantuniversity.edu.in/blog/story-of-stepwells-bawdi-baoli-kalyani-the-forsaken-sisters-sushant-school-of-art-and-architecture-sushant-university/

[13] Selvaraj, T., Devadas, P., Perumal, J. L., Zabaniotou, A., Ganesapillai, M. A comprehensive review of the potential of stepwells as sustainable water management structures. Water 14: 2665. (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172665

[14] Pickard, B. The tailor-made guide to the stepwells of Rajasthan. (2024) Oct. 20. https://www.tailormadeitineraries.com/post/the-tailor-made-guide-to-the-stepwells-of-rajasthan.   Accessed Dec 4, 2024

[15] Singh, R. B. and Kumar, A. Climate variability and water resource scarcity in drylands of Rajasthan, India. Geoenvironmental Disasters 2:7 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-015-0018-5

[16] Lautman (2013).

[17] Risekult.com. Chand Baori. The deepest memory. Focus On, Lost. November 20th. (2014)  http://risekult.com/focus-on/chand-baori-the-deepest-memory

[18]Sekhar, M., Tomer, S. K., Thiyaku, S., Giriraj, P., Murthy, S., and Mehta, V. K. Groundwater level dynamics in Bengaluru City, India. Sustainability 10(1):26. (2018) https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010026

[19] Livingston, M. Steps to Water. Princeton Architectural Press.(2002).

[20] Pahwa, J., Ascents and descents in the 21st Century: restoring Chand Baori. Masters Thesis. 719. (2021). https://digitalcommons.risd.edu/masterstheses/719

[21] Risekult.com.

[22] Jaan, N. 60 Feet Deep Well. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLFl1CC35oQ   Accessed January 8, 2025.

[23] Mahilange, Devid. Step by Step Well Digging by hand. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42WpcZUqyy8 (2021) Accessed January 10, 2025.

[24] Stepwells of Ahmedabad. Exhibit. The Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture. The Cooper Union.  Nov. 2-Dec. 4. 2020) https://cooper.edu/architecture/events-and-exhibitions/exhibitions/stepwells-ahmedabad.  Accessed Dec 4, 2024.

[25] https://safetyculture.com/topics/caisson-construction/

[26] Delhi Urban Art Commission. Rejuvenation of Baoli Precincts City Level Projects. Water & Heritage. January (2018). https://duac.org.in/Upload/City%20Level%20Studies/Landscape%20studies/653977352707470.pdf   accessed dec 5 2024

[27] A Tough Place to Work: in a Box, Submerged, Digging out Dirt from a River Bed (1873) https://longstreet.typepad.com/thesciencebookstore/2017/03/brooklyn-bridge.html

[28] Ramesh R., and Yadava M. G. Climate and water resources of India. Current Science 89(5):818–824. (2005).

[29] Ramesh, K. The Journey of Restoring Bansilalpet Stepwell. (2023) Kindle.  https://www.amazon.in/Journey-Restoring-Bansilalpet-Stepwell-ebook/dp/B0BT81HVQM

[30] Azmi, F. T. The ancient stepwells helping to curb India’s water crisis. BBC October 12. (2021) https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211012-the-ancient-stepwells-helping-to-curb-indias-water-crisis

[31] Select Water Tanks. Water Tank Regulations Queensland. Help & Advice, Select News. (2022). https://www.selectwatertanks.com.au/water-tank-regulations-queensland/

[32] Fenster, D. Water Harvester: An Invitation to Abundance. Arizona Illustrated. AZPM. November 3. (2022). https://tv.azpm.org/p/season8/2022/7/25/212069-water-harvester-an-invitation-to-abundance/ Accessed December 8, 2024

8 Top Reasons You Should Start Using Solar Lights

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Most people are looking for new ways to cut their power bills in today’s age of energy awareness. The advancements in technology come with its advantages, as there are now more and more gadgets that make life easier. Appliances are getting more high tech, but this also means increasing power bills, because of more energy consumption. Appliances can make lives more convenient and comfortable, but not doing anything with the electric bills can also result in financial stress. This is especially true if your home is equipped with a lot of appliances.

With that in mind, there’s no better way to make that switch to a renewable source of energy,  than through solar lights. Until recent times, solar lights are only seen more as an alternative to the common method of lighting. Aside from using these in homes, you can now buy solar lights for parking lots, allowing you to experience more benefits from this advancement. Installing solar lights in different areas of your residential and commercial property allows you to save more money in the long run.

solar-powered-street

It’s becoming more popular, however, with the advancements of today’s technology. It’s not only the businesses that are making this healthier switch but residential homes as well. When you take a good look around you, you’re sure to find quite an influx of solar-related products, such as solar street lighting. As more and more people are using solar lights, you can expect that different variations of this product will continue to exist in the future.

In this article, we will give you some explanations of why you should start switching to solar lighting. Solar lighting is beneficial not only to you but to mother earth as well, for reasons like the following:

1. Eco-Friendly And Renewable

Green energy, one of which is solar energy, is the latest craze in smart homes, but it’s also a way to take care of our planet’s future. In fact, this is more than just a craze or a trend. It’s a lifestyle that will only get even more popular in the coming years.

Solar lights are a very good energy source because the sun is always around and there’s an abundance of solar output for the solar panels to absorb even during the cloudiest days. This means that you’ll never run out of supply, even when you’re going to be using so many more appliances or gadgets. In today’s era of industrialization, dependency on so many more gadgets is often unavoidable. This is unlike the conventional, non-renewable energy source, whereby the more that you use, the higher will be your bill, too.

Because the sun is one of our natural resources, we don’t have to buy it from anywhere else. As a bonus, we can also spend less money and energy instead of importing from somewhere else. In addition, there are no harmful gases from a solar panel. According to Solar-aid.org, solar lights reduce the amount of kerosene that is burnt in lamps, thereby reducing global warming.

One of the main environmental problems is a growing carbon footprint resulting from the use of non-renewable sources of energy production. But, using solar lights, you can make your carbon footprint significantly lower.

Solar uses lower-powered components like LED/CFL lamps, lower-powered electrical, and the like. These materials use less power than typical electrical systems. In addition, LEDs are initially powered from 12 VDC and require AC adapters for normal electrical power. They can function more effectively by generating more light and less energy by using DC power for LEDs.

2. Easy Installation

Solar panels are easy to set up, usually requiring just a few bolts to keep them fixed and a few basic cables. For most installation setups, solar lighting systems provide the solar power system at the top of the pole. It’s ideal that all necessary electrical components are placed at the top of the pole. However, do refrain from trying to do this by yourself. No matter how easy the installation may seem, it’s still best to leave it in the hands of the experts who are well trained and certified in this job.

Nevertheless, low voltage DC power is much easier to handle and safer to work with than typical electric power. Solar can be mounted almost anywhere. Whatever the case, the solar can be installed to power anything as long as there is a sunny spot nearby.

3. Cost-Efficient

One of the biggest misconceptions people have when it comes to solar lights is that its installation is going to be expensive. Most people think that they need thousands, or even millions, of dollars before they can enjoy solar lighting in their properties.

However, this isn’t true because there are now many companies that offer this product. This variety will make it easy for you to find a provider that suits your needs and budget. Some companies might even offer discounts for bulk orders or first-time clients.

Solar lights offer cost-effective lighting solutions as they do not require electricity. This means that after installing solar lights to your property, you won’t have to pay for thousands of dollars for your electricity bills. Solar lights use energy from the heat of the sun and will no longer depend on electrical charges. Over time, this can help you save a lot of money from your electrical bills, without compromising your comfort and convenience indoors.

solar-street-light

You can also calculate cost savings by eliminating the need for grid power trenching, maintenance, repairs, and so on. As long as your solar lights are installed by experts, you don’t have to worry about paying for expensive repairs several times a year.

Both small businesses and large corporations now appreciate the advantages of using solar energy. Solar energy helps businesses save operating expenses. This is especially important for small or new businesses that still have limited financial resources. Instead of paying for expensive electrical bills, entrepreneurs can allocate more financial resources to other facets of the business, such as marketing, customer service, and product development.

Electric power will hike up your company’s overall expenses. By using a solar power system, you can enjoy several years of energy for a much lower cost, allowing you to save for other things.

4. Low Maintenance

You don’t need any eventual technological improvements as soon as you mount your solar street lights. In reality, the price you spend for the first installation is a long-term solution.

HEISolar street lights, for instance, do not need to be replaced occasionally and no routine maintenance is required. So be cautious about buying good solar products. You should choose one that can last for a number of years without giving you any problems.

5. Battery Backup

Many solar light systems today use a battery backup that stores the energy needed to keep the system running for three or more days (the best systems provide backup power for at least five evenings). So, in case the sun doesn’t show itself, you’re still going to have light for a few days.

6. No Electrical Wires

Typical outdoor lighting includes electrical wires. Clearly, these can be a tripping hazard, can be gnawed by an animal, or can be a problem when it starts raining. You won’t have such issues when dealing with solar lights.

Regular silicon wafers, used for photovoltaics (PV) to convert power from insolation to electricity, are not able to endure severe weather on their own but are enclosed behind plastics. Thus, you can rest assured that even if water gets in, the worst thing that will happen is that the lighting will cease to work.

7. Effective In Emergencies

If your town is often hit by strong storms, power outages will also be common to you. Because these happen so suddenly, it’s normal also for you to be least prepared. Especially when you’ve got young children or aging parents at your home, being without a power source can be quite difficult. When a catastrophic situation like a natural disaster happens, nothing is better than solar power, because, during harsh and difficult conditions, it can operate efficiently and does not require electricity.

With solar energy, you don’t get affected by any power outages. Of course, this is given the fact that you’ve also had sunny days enough for you to have stored enough power in your solar panel system. For as long as the sun shines, you’ll have a well-lit home, too.

Final Thoughts

It’s no surprise that lowering your carbon footprint helps the environment. But, as much as you may want to reduce the appliances that you use daily, sometimes, this just isn’t possible. So, you’ve got to look for other workable solutions instead. One of these is by replacing your energy source with a more renewable one. That is, going for solar solutions for businesses and households.

Understanding the reasons for turning to solar power can, therefore, enable you to save more money while saving the world. If you want to minimize your impact on the environment and be ecologically friendly, you ought to have solar lights on your to-buy list.

Leveraging Microbial Biodiversity for Environmental Protection

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Microbial biodiversity, is a cornerstone of life on our planet. Microbes, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, protozoa and fungi, play critical roles in maintaining ecosystem health, driving biogeochemical cycles, acting as natural recyclers and supporting human life. Recently, the intersection of microbial biodiversity and environmental management has opened new avenues for addressing pressing global challenges such as climate change, resource scarcity, and pollution. By harnessing the unique competences of microorganisms, biologists are developing innovative solutions that are both sustainable and efficient.

environmental application of microbes

Environmental Applications of Microbial Biodiversity

Microbes are a treasure trove of genetic and metabolic diversity. Microorganisms, the first organisms on earth ,have evolved over billions of years to thrive in virtually every niche, from deep-sea hydrothermal vents, to polar ice to arid deserts, their remarkable adaptability and ecological significance make them ideal candidates for technologies aimed at mitigating pollution, producing renewable energy, and restoring ecosystems.

Here are some of the applications of microbial biodiversity in environmental protection:

1. Bioremediation

One of the most well-established applications of microbes is bioremediation, the use of microorganisms to detoxify environmental pollutants. Microbes can break down a wide range of contaminants, including hydrocarbons, synthetic chemicals, and heavy metals, into less harmful substances.

2. Oil Spill Cleanup

A classic example of bioremediation is the use of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria to clean up oil spills. Following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, researchers discovered that naturally occurring marine bacteria, such as Alcanivorax borkumensis, played a significant role in breaking down the spilled oil. By enhancing the growth of bacteria through biostimulation, biologists were able to accelerate the natural recovery of the ecosystem.

3. Heavy Metal Remediation

Certain bacteria and fungi have the ability to adsorb heavy metals, effectively removing them from contaminated water or soil. For example, Shewanella oneidensis, a bacterium, can reduce toxic chromium(VI) to less harmful chromium(III), making it a valuable tool for treating industrial wastewater.

4. Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater treatment plants rely heavily on microbial communities to remove organic matter, nutrients, and pathogens from sewage. Advances in microbial ecology and biotechnology have led to the development of more efficient and sustainable treatment processes.

5. Anammox Bacteria for Nitrogen Removal

Traditional wastewater treatment processes for nitrogen removal are energy-intensive and produce significant greenhouse gas emissions. However, the discovery of anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) bacteria has revolutionized this field. Anammox bacteria, such as Candidatus Brocadia, convert ammonium and nitrite directly into nitrogen gas, bypassing the need for intermediate steps. A 2020 study in Nature Biotechnology demonstrated the successful implementation of anammox-based systems in full-scale wastewater treatment plants, reducing operational costs as well as energy consumption by up to 60%.

6. Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are an emerging technology that uses electroactive bacteria to generate electricity from organic matter in wastewater. Bacteria such as Geobacter sulfurreducens and Shewanella oneidensis play important roles in electron transfer processes, producing a current while simultaneously treating wastewater.

7. Carbon Capture and Climate Change Mitigation

Microbes play a central role in the carbon cycle, and their potential for carbon capture and storage is actively being explored by scientists to reduce atmospheric CO2 levels and mitigate climate change.

8. Carbon-Fixing Microbes

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, are photosynthetic microorganisms that can fix atmospheric CO2 into biomass. Researchers are engineering cyanobacteria to produce biofuels and bioplastics, effectively converting CO2 into valuable products.

9. Soil Microbes and Carbon Sequestration

Soil microbes are essential for carbon sequestration, the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon in soil. Practices such as regenerative agriculture and afforestation can enhance the activity of soil microbes, increasing carbon storage. A 2022 review in Science highlighted the potential of soil microbial communities to sequester up to 5 billion tons of CO2 annually, making them a critical component of climate change mitigation strategies.

microbial diversity and environment

10. Plastic Degradation: Tackling the Plastic Waste Crisis

The global plastic waste crisis has prompted researchers to explore microbial solutions for plastic degradation. Certain microbes produce enzymes capable of breaking down synthetic polymers, offering a promising approach to addressing plastic pollution.

11. PET-Degrading Enzymes

In 2016, a team of Japanese researchers discovered Ideonella sakaiensis, a bacterium that can degrade polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a common plastic used in bottles and packaging. The bacterium produces two enzymes, PETase and MHETase, which break down PET into its basic monomers.

12. Fungal Degradation of Plastics

Fungi, such as Aspergillus tubingensis, have shown promise in degrading polyurethane, a plastic commonly used in foams and adhesives.

Challenges and Future Directions

While the potential of microbial biodiversity in environmental protection is immense, several challenges must be addressed to fully realize its benefits. These include:

Understanding Microbial Interactions

Microbial communities are highly complex, and predicting their interactions can be challenging. Advances in systems biology and metagenomics are needed to gain a deeper understanding of these interactions and enhance microbial technologies.

Scalability and Implementation

Many microbial technologies are still in the experimental stage and encounter challenges in scaling up for large-scale industrial use. Collaboration between biologists and policymakers is essential to bridge the gap between lab-based research and real-world applications.

Ethical and Regulatory Considerations

The use of GMOs in environmental applications raises ethical and regulatory concerns. Strong frameworks are needed to ensure the safe and responsible use of GMOs in bioremediation, carbon capture, and other technologies.

Conclusion

Microbial biodiversity holds unlimited potential for addressing the most pressing environmental challenges of our time. From plastic degradation and bioremediation to sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation, microbial applications are revolutionizing ecological management. By leveraging the unique capabilities of microbes and advancing our understanding of microbial ecology, we can develop technologies that not only protect the environment but also promote human well-being. As research in this field progresses, the integration of microbial biodiversity into environmental management will play a vital role in creating a more sustainable future.

References

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  2. Shi, L., et al. (2018). *Shewanella oneidensis MR-1: A model organism for microbial metal reduction*. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 84(12), e02119-17.
  3. Kartal, B., et al. (2020). *Anammox-based technologies for nitrogen removal: Advances in process optimization and scale-up*. Nature Biotechnology, 38(6), 673-681.
  4. Logan, B. E., et al. (2019). *Microbial fuel cells: Methodology and technology*. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(7), 3571-3587.
  5. Liu, C., et al. (2021). *Cyanobacteria as a platform for biofuel production*. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1-10.
  6. Lehmann, J., et al. (2022). *Soil microbial carbon sequestration: A nature-based solution to climate change*. Science, 375(6586), 1412-1415.
  7. Yoshida, S., et al. (2020). *Engineering PETase for improved plastic degradation*. Nature, 580(7802), 216-219.
  8. Khan, S., et al. (2021). *Fungal degradation of polyurethane: A promising approach to plastic waste management*. Environmental Pollution, 276, 116706.
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How to Organize a Great Company Retreat: 7 Important Things to Do Ahead of Time

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Putting together a company retreat doesn’t have to be a challenge. The critical thing to know is that it will boost overall team morale, promote collaboration, and improve your company’s culture.

It is one thing to come up with the idea for a retreat; it’s another to plan out the entire process with attention to detail. This guide will discuss the seven essential things you need to do ahead of time so your company retreat goes off without a hitch.

corporate retreat

Decide If Custom Apparel Is Best For You

If one thing will bring a team together, it could be matching custom apparel. Not only will you create custom shirts or hoodies to foster unity and team spirit, but they can also be a memento for what could be one of your company’s most memorable retreats.

Knowing where to get shirts printed will be something you need to look for. The good news is that Printful has custom t-shirts, hoodies, and other apparel that they can create upon your request.

Define the Goals and Objectives

The best way to ensure that your company retreat is successful is to define the goals and objectives. You want to understand the actual purpose.

Are you looking to brainstorm new ideas with your team? Are you looking to create stronger team cohesion? Or is it something else?

Be decisive about your goals and objectives. This way, you can branch off any ideas based on the goals and objectives that you want to meet.

Choose the Right Location

Next, you want to find out where this retreat can be held. Consider some factors that play a role in deciding which location is best. This includes travel distance, amenities, and the type of environment that will be the best match for your goals and objectives. This can be something out of town, such as a quiet mountain lodge, or in the middle of another city where you can easily travel by car or, if necessary, a quick flight.

Plan the Agenda

You want to put together an organized agenda covering the topics you want to address at the retreat. You want to create a balance between work and play. This is where you can include things such as team-building activities, workshops, and even downtime so you and your team members can informally interact with one another or relax.

Once the agenda is official, please share it with your team so they can plan what to expect and prepare for the retreat.

Budget Accordingly

Planning a retreat will take a lot of work. That’s why it is essential to put together a budget to outline any expenses that may arise. Consider travel, accommodation, meals, activities, and any external facilitators that may require additional spending.

Ensure the budget is clear and outlined so you can make informed decisions ahead of time while avoiding unwelcome surprises that could cost you more.

Make Arrangements and Accommodations for Participants

It’s important to book accommodations and transportation as early as possible. Not only will this save you from last-minute hassles, but it will also remove a significant hurdle when planning this retreat. Also, ensure that you have a final headcount as soon as possible to begin the arrangements and accommodations aspect of the retreat planning.

Communicate Clearly with Participants

Last but not least, you want to ensure that you communicate with all participants who plan to attend the retreat. You want to inform them of the retreat’s goals, agenda, and logistics in advance.

Make sure that you encourage open communication and feedback so you can address any concerns or answer questions so that everyone is on the same page leading up to the retreat itself. You can even create a Gmail account for your business strictly for the retreat so it’s relevant for planning and other purposes.

Final Thoughts

These seven essential things should be noticed as you plan your next company retreat. Be sure to be clear about the goals and objectives and center the planning around them. Also, remember your participants.

Make arrangements to ensure that the retreat will be favorable for them regarding accommodations, transportation, and other needs. Use this guide, and we guarantee that your company retreat will be a success and will be talked about for years to come.