The Destruction of the Dead Sea

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Dead Sea is the lowest point on the planet and one of the most unique environments around the world. It lies on the borders of Jordan, the West Bank and Israel. Known for its high-density waters and mineral rich soils, the Dead Sea is visited by a large number of tourists from all over the world. Its soils contain minerals such as potassium, magnesium, calcium, and salt. These minerals are used in cosmetics, chemical products such as industrial salts and are even used in table salts for home use.

biodiversity in dead sea

Sorry State of the Affairs

The once mineral-rich Dead Sea has shrunk to the size of a small and pitiful pond. Water levels have been dropping at a rate of 1 meter per annum. Currently it lies 1,300 feet below sea level and if the rate of decline continues it will reach 1,800 feet below sea level before the end of the century. This sharp decline is due to the over-exploitation of its minerals, the use of its water for desalination, and the large increase in agriculture in both Jordan and Israel.

Many environmental casualties have been associated with the rapid retreat in the shoreline of the Dead Sea. An example is the emergence of sinkholes. Many residential areas and roads around the Dead Sea have been destroyed because of sinkholes. Sinkholes are natural depressions in the Earth’s surface caused by the chemical dissolution of nutrients in the soil. These sinkholes endanger the lives of locals and tourists alike.

In an attempt to save the Dead Sea, the governments of Jordan and Israel plan to implement a project called the “Red to Dead Water Conveyance Plan” which involves building of a pipeline that connects both the Red and the Dead Sea and pumping around two thousand million cubic meters (mcm) of water per year into the latter which is equivalent to the water produced by 60 desalination plants in a day. However, many scientists are skeptical of this project due to the many problems that would arise including:

  1. The different densities and minerals in the waters would cause algal blooms that would be detrimental to the environment while also causing the water to turn red/green.
  2. Large water withdrawal from the Red Sea would have a detrimental effect on the coral reefs, sea level, and nutrient levels.
  3. The pipeline carrying the water from the Red to the Dead Sea might leak salt water into groundwater reserves along its route thereby increasing salinity in both the groundwater and the surrounding soil.

On the basis of these apprehensions it seems that this project would do little to help rectify the problem and might even add to it. An alternative way to save the Dead Sea would be to rehabilitate the Jordan River. As it stands today, only 50 mcm of water from the Jordan River reaches the Dead Sea as opposed to 1.3 billion cubic meters in 1950.

jordan river

Jordan River is now a mix of sewage, saline water and agricultural run-offs

The Jordan River is a shadow of what it once was. The river acts as the main water source for Jordan, Israel, and the West Bank. As a result, 90% of the fresh water that replenishes it is diverted to agriculture.  Another problem facing it is pollution from agricultural and wastewater run-offs. About 50% of the agricultural run-offs from the surrounding areas are dumped into the river which has caused its water levels to drop dramatically.

Action Plan

Unfortunately, with limited sources of water, it will be difficult to ask concerned governments to stop relying heavily on the Jordan River. Some of the actions that governments may initative include:

  1. Improve irrigation systems and abandon the traditional systems that waste more than 25% of the water that is used.
  2. Renovate pipe systems in cities to reduce the number of leaks from the pipelines and to supply clean drinking tap water for the public.
  3. Plant local plants, which do not require much water and refrain from planting water intensive plants (e.g. rice).
  4. Harvest rainwater by manufacturing storage Pillars or tanks.

The Dead Sea has a geological importance in the region, and has many important aspects that make it significant. It is the saltiest and most mineral rich water body in the world. It also has a biological importance as it is home to many unique biological bacteria that are not present anywhere else on Earth. Regenerating the Jordan River, less water desalination, and improving water management practices will help regenerate the Dead Sea and help maintain this unique and important environment.

How Landscaping Adds Value to Your Property

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There is no way of predicting what might happen in your life. Not to mention, the housing market is always prone to fluctuations. In other words, the option of selling property is always on the table. This is why if you’re a person who thinks ahead, you should always be looking for ways to add value to your property. While there are a lot of ways, a simple, foolproof, way to boost your property’s value is landscaping.

alhambra-garden

A proper, well-maintained garden can easily add up over a thousand dollars to the value of your property because, as you probably know, a good looking landscape can accentuate the look of a house. On the other hand, a neglected landscape can ruin everything.

Now that we have established the importance of landscaping, in order for you to properly increase the value of your house, you need to understand how does landscaping actually increase your property’s value.

1. It gives off a good first impression

Imagine that you’re going to look at a property. What is the first thing that you encounter? Almost always the answer would be the landscape. If the grass is healthy, good-looking, and evenly trimmed, the impression you’d get is that if the owners take that much care of the grass, the inside of the house must be in perfect shape too. This can make buyers more willing to offer more for the house.

2. It allows the owner to increase their selling price

A house increases in value according to what it offers. A house with a pool, for example, is expected to be sold at a higher price than a regular house. It’s the same thing when it comes to houses with a decent looking landscape construction.

A landscape with a professional look simply gives you all the more reason to bump up your selling price. After all, all that care for your landscape must have cost you something.

importance of landscaping

3. It is a time-proof feature

What sets apart landscaping from other home value-boosting alterations is that it never goes out of style. People will always want a decent looking landscape in front of their house. You never hear anyone saying, “my wife and I are looking for a patchy, sunburnt garden,” right?

Nevertheless, it is possible to hear people complaining about a house design being too tacky, or too old. Not to mention, good landscaping provides a good foundation for plants to grow in a healthier, and more even manner.

Final Thoughts

After going through all of the above, it is easy to feel that you want to take your landscaping game to the next level. It is important, however, that you remember to not get carried away. Too much landscaping is simply going to look overwhelming for buyers.

Think of it that way. If you workout everyday until you sculpt an amazing body, you would need to keep working out everyday, with the same intensity, in order to maintain it. To house buyers, an overly done landscaping would seem like too much of a high maintenance feature.

How to Estimate the Effectiveness of an Outsourcing Team?

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Developing applications and games without outsourcing teams is practically never done nowadays. If the project is large enough, the company almost always engages outsourced workers to help. It may be cheaper, more efficient, and more profitable, but only if the outsourcing team fulfills the set tasks accurately and if these tasks are clearly formulated. Working with an outsourcing team is similar to cooperating with a writing service like payforessay.net, where students order papers. At the same time, they must describe the task to the writer in as much detail as possible to get the desired result. So it is with outsourcing. Setting the right goal and properly determining the hired staff’s professionalism will be part of your project’s success.

effective outsourcing team

Setting Goals and Voicing Expectations

Before hiring an outsourced team, you should clearly understand what part of the job they are expected to accomplish. You can’t hire employees and talk about theoretical goals. Your tasks should be specific, measurable, and achievable within the budget and timeframe you set. If you phrase the task poorly, set unrealistic deadlines, or allocate an inadequate budget, a good result will be a miracle. This triangle of deadlines, complexity, and funding should be equilateral, and only then can you be sure of success.

Apart from this, all your assignments for the outsourcing team should be documented and approved. You need evidence and confirmation of your requirements to monitor and keep the work productive throughout the entire project. This can be technical specifications, timelines, and specific quality terms and conditions.

If your project involves multiple phases of development, regular discussion of the work and checking intermediate results is essential. You should follow one simple truth that doctors most often repeat: “Prevention is much easier and cheaper than cure.”

Assessing Productivity

The first thing to say is that you must first decide on the team. To do this, you need to do a preliminary valuation and review the performance of external employees. Once you have decided on the team, you need to determine the criteria for evaluating their productivity.

KPI, or key performance indicators, should become your deskbook for working with an outsourcing team. With these metrics, you can literally feel the productivity of the team. In general, performance metrics can be evaluated using three main metrics.

Cycle Time

This metric gives you the ability to play with time. Not in the literal sense of the word, of course, but it shows how much time the outsourcing team takes to complete tasks. It is important to remember that this metric is not about individual numbers but about stability throughout the work. If a team fulfills one task before the deadline and fails all extra deadlines for another, you should look for the problem and fix it in order not to get a defect at the end of the project.

Budget and Timeline Adherence

This metric often gets the most attention in an audit because it directly relates to costs. However, it doesn’t always mean poor-quality work if a team goes over budget or over schedule. Before reprimanding or terminating contracts, return to the imaginary triangle and ensure you have provided realistic deadlines and funding.

Defect Density

This indicator evaluates the back end of the work, namely the development process itself. Here, you can notice the number of defects in the code and the speed of their correction. A small number of defects and quick fixing time are not a problem. The problem is when defects are constant and extensive. This can speak about the professionalism of developers and may require adjusting the staff, as critical errors on the final tests can ruin the whole project.

Assessing the Work Quality

Assessing the quality of the outsourcing team’s work should include regular code reviews, automated testing, and user feedback analysis.

Code Review

Regular testing is worth conducting before the code is integrated into the project’s main branch. This process improves the quality of the code. In addition, it involves communication between outsourced developers and the core team, which helps build relationships and improve understanding of the final goals for everyone.

outsourcing team

Automated Testing

This is a mandatory part of the quality assessment of the work. The more tests the code undergoes, the more stable and reliable the build you will get. This is especially important for projects where stability and security are critical, such as financial or medical applications.

Users Feedback

This step is important to understand whether you will cooperate with this development team in the future. If users complain about the stability or quality of the product created by the outsourced part of the team, there may be errors in planning and tasking or in the programmers’ work themselves.

Project Management and Communication

The more productive conversations, the better. It is important to realize that these should not be empty rallies discussing obvious things. Each time, you should prepare specific questions and clarifications for the outsourcing team and demand the same questions and requests for improvement. In this case, it is worth establishing a system of regular reports from developers to indicate the specific stage of task fulfillment and plans for the next period. It is also equally important to synchronize the outsourcing team’s work with the project’s core. For example, daily stand-ups help maintain a common work rhythm and quickly respond to emerging problems.

The second, and no less important, stage of project management is transparency. Employees should know about the final product and understand what is expected of them, and you should be open to criticism and suggestions to improve the project’s work and achieve the desired product at the end.

Conclusion

Program development in management control is not much different from other businesses at its core. Development has nuances of performance measurement, quality control, and task scheduling, but the basic steps, such as communication, openness, and analysis, remain common. Also, it remains a common and complex approach, thanks to which it is possible to create quality products that will help users and work stably.

Mutual Aid and Moral Behaviour in the Animal Kingdom

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“A good deed done to an animal is as meritorious as a good deed done to a human being, while an act of cruelty to an animal is as bad as an act of cruelty to a human being.” – Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him)

One regularly hears people describe a dangerous and violent person as an “animal.” This is always an injustice, not to the person, but to all animals.

There is most often nothing harmful and attributed to “animals” that is done by them, but which is done on a daily basis by humans. Only in cases of disease and of human interference do other animals behave contrary to their nature, for example in captivity and under stress and suffering caused by human activity, often blindly and without concern, and often even with outright malevolence.

moral behaviour in animals

Carnivorous animals need to hunt in order to eat. One meal will last them a long time. What we see when lionesses stalk and capture their prey is a high level of co-operation, showing an advanced level of social cohesion within the extended family. The kill is as instant as possible, with one bite to the prey’s throat. It is not the predator’s aim to cause suffering, but to obtain food to feed her family. Yet the fact that lions, tigers and leopards are carnivores is used as justification by humans to use the word ‘animal’ as an epithet and term of abuse and an indicator of mindless and superfluous violence.

Hunters shoot elephants for their tusks, and also for their feet. Those who seek to justify this say they only shoot the oldest elephants, who have the longest tusks, and whose deaths don’t matter. They have no idea, and care even less, of the injury done to the extended elephant family and the social fabric of the herd.

The decimation of wildlife is not just about numbers. Elephants and lions grieve. They suffer loss, just as humans do. The eldest have an important place in their societies. Elephants are regularly seen congregating round the sites where elephants have died, and revisiting those sites. Lions, robbed by death of loved members of their pride, attend and cry out at places frequented by their dead fathers and brothers. And, lest this be read as mere supposition, there are human naturalists and experts in the behaviour of other animals who can attest to it.

biodiversity in jordan

The complex social lives of these animals have come to be more understood in recent times, by George Adamson (who was murdered by poachers) and Tony Fitzjohn, who learned from him and who continues to work among lions and other animals. Thanks to their work, the George Adamson Wildlife Preservation Trust continues to work with local people, upgrading schools, and seeking to resolve conflicts between other animals and people over land and resources to the mutual benefit of both.

The above-named pioneers learned, from living with lions and other animals, the social clues necessary to mix with them safely, as other pioneers have done with bears in Kamchatka and Alaska.

Jane Goodall has done the same with chimpanzees and Dyan Fossey with gorillas, establishing lifelong friendships with members of these species and coming to understand their language (language is much more than just the spoken kind) and social intricacies. Mark Bekoff from Colorado is the author of numerous works on ethology (animal behaviour and societies), including The Emotional Lives of Animals and other pioneering works.

Beyond mammals, too, complex relationships and behaviours and advanced consciousness has been observed, and details published, on octopuses, who recognise individual humans who have befriended them, after long absences, and who delight especially in play. They too grieve and suffer from separation, which can cause them to die from sorrow.

The story of Delphinus, after whom the dolphin is named, was one of the earliest recorded instances of dolphins saving the lives of drowning humans.

moral behaviour among animals

Beyond the relationships of these animals and many others with humans, mutual aid, so important to our own survival, is in evidence as a guiding principle of their own societies, from sea animals to primates, and even insects.

Elephants communicate over long distances through vibration, and whales through song. Birdsong is beautiful to our ears but is not as a rule for our benefit, but to communicate with their fellows. Wolf song too. Wolf song has been successfully used by humans to communicate with wolves.

Humility is a virtue we do well to learn. If we wish to cherish, rather than destroy, then humility on our part is now more than ever a necessity.

Our Earth: A Gift for Humanity Which Should be Protected

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Ecological living is about protecting and preserving the environment of planet Earth, through recognizing the uniqueness of its various eco-systems and species. Every individual habitat supports all manner of life. Awakening of a wider ecological consciousness requires the acknowledgement and celebration of our reciprocal relationship with the rest of the living world. For only we can hear the language of other beings as we can understand the generosity of the earth and learning to give our own gifts in return.

Earth was given as a gift for humanity and the human being was created and established on this earth as vicegerent. My heart pains to see that earth has become a commodity, land or real estate, or capital of natural resources, in today’s material world.  What we are witnessing in our world is the failure of humanity to maintain the balance.

The Holy Quran declares:

“Corruption has appeared on the land and in the sea because of what the hands of humans have earned” (Ar-Room 30:41).

Balance of Nature in Islamic Teachings

The Essence of Interdependence

Interdependence is a fundamental feature of all living creatures. This universal law or sunnah gives meaning to life as all living things are, in essence, a synthesis of relationships with all other living things. Life in the absence of such communities is void of meaning and in all cases impossible. Islam nurtures and regulates the intricate web of relations that life depends on for the general welfare of all.

The ultimate accountability of every being or nafs is closely associated with its role, behavior and contribution to the preservation and advancement of these relations. As creatures endowed with choice, the Quran exhorts us to recognize that all creatures form communities similar to ours so that our regard for communal relations is not limited to the human realm.

Protecting the environment must include an appreciation of the relationships within and among communities of other living creatures and the dependence of human welfare on understanding this universal law.

And there is no treading creature in the earth or a flying creature that flies with its wings except that form communities like yours; We have not overlooked anything in the Book, then to their Lord shall they be gathered (Al-Anaam 6:38)

The Importance and Value of Creation

The Quran is comprehensive and its teachings draw our attention to the importance and value of all creation. In this verse we are clearly reminded that the earth was established for all living things, not just humans. Humans are situated among a magnificent web of life, elevated but not necessarily at the top. Other creation is valuable in and of itself in the divine scheme; not in relation to human needs but as communities that know and worship their Creator.

The earth is a repose for all of us, human and non-human. Our ability to benefit from animals in various ways does not negate their intrinsic value in the divine scheme. The Quran urges us to recognize the rights of other creation thereby respecting and preserving the balance that enables all of creation to live in peace and plenty.

The theme of balance in the Quran is critical for the establishment of mercy, equity, justice, beauty, and all other values that are necessarily impacted by the prevalence of balance. Balance must therefore be understood both literally and figuratively.

People are exhorted to explore, understand and respect the qualitative and quantitative measures that give balance to all forms of life with its communal character and inseparability from nature. They are also commanded to be equitable in weighing, as a balance compares the mass of two or more different elements. Diminishing the value of any element upsets the natural balance, which in turn has negative consequences, not only for the perpetrator of such an injustice, but more broadly for the balance that sustains all of our lives.

Do Not Corrupt the Earth

That you not transgress the Balance. And establish measure with equity and do not negatively alter the Balance (Ar-Rahman 55:8-9)

The Earth Demands Respect and Nourishment

The Quran exhorts people not to corrupt the earth. It is notable that in the Arabic language there is no “it”; everything has a form which is either masculine or feminine. The earth is a “she” – a feminine form. This linguistic device not only maintains the autonomous character of all creation, it infuses each element no matter how minute or massive with a spiritual and sacred dimension. The earth is not an “it”, she is Allah’s creation, beautiful, decorated, autonomous, yielding only to Allah’s command.

We are commanded to take care of her, to respect her and to protect her from vice and destruction. But with our limited knowledge and shortsightedness, we can only turn to Allah in fear and hope; our fear that we are not adequately fulfilling this trust or demonstrating our worth as inhabitants on her lands and consumers of her riches; our hope that Allah will guide and forgive us and that He will preserve her for us and for generations to come. He is the Merciful.

The Way Forward

Having created us, and then through the institution of religion oriented us towards Him, our Creator then situated us in a delicate, intricate system where our success, and indeed the perpetuation of that system, rests in maintaining a balance between all things.

Do not disrupt the balance of Nature holding the Earth together. Do not be wasteful and excessive in enjoying its bounties. Always consider and accommodate the other creatures we share this home with. Finally, always, and forever shower praise upon the owner who so graciously allows us to enjoy it, while thanking Him profusely for His generosity.

 

Note: This article has been written from the excerpts of my book Our Earth: Embracing All Communities which is a humble effort to amplify awareness of the imbalance that humans have created in nature, and to encourage people to care for the Earth and live in harmony with other living things.

Visit http:s//www.salmaarastu.com/ to know more about my book and my artistic journey.

النظام الواعد للري بالقُلة (الانية الفخارية)

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تُعد طريقة الري بالقٌلة (إناء فخاري مدفون) واحد من أكثر الأنظمة المعروفة كفاءة وهي مثالية للمزارعين الصغار، بالرغم من أن العمل بالانظمة التقليدية الفعالة وذات الفائدة الكبيرة في المزارع والحدائق صغيرة ومتوسطة الحجم لم يكن معروفاً في وقتنا الحالي إلا مؤخراً. لقد تعلمت هذه الطريقة خلال قرائتي لكتاب صيني عن الزراعة من قبل 2000 عام، حيث كانوا يستخدمون ري القُلة بإناء طيني مدفون وغير مصقول مليء بالماء للتحكم بالري للنباتات، حيث يتسرب الماء من خلال الجدران الطينية بمعدل كمية استهلاك النبات للماء.

clay pot irrigation

لماذا القٌلة؟

أثبتت دراسة أجريت في كينيا عام 2013، أن نظام الري بالقُلل كان اكثر كفاءةً من الري بالحفر، حيث وفر هذا النظام 97.1% من المياه لمحاصيل الذرة والطماطم. وكانت غلة الذرة أعلى بنسبة 32.2% وللطماطم 43.7%. وفي دراسة أخرى أجريت في الهند، بلغ 97.8% من محصول البطيخ المروي بنظام القلل 25 طن/هكتار باستخدام 2 سم مكعب فقط من الماء، بالمقارنة بمحصول 33 طن/هكتار باستخدام 26 سم مكعب بطريقة الري بالغمر. إن رطوبة التربة التي يحافظ عليها نظام الري بالقلة تمكننا من زراعة المحاصيل في التربة المالحة أو حتى استخدام المياه المالحة لأن الري التقليدي لا يعمل بفعالية. تم الحصول على غلال عالية من الطماطم في الهند حيث بلغت النسبة 27 طن/هكتار باستخدام مياه مالحة EC10.2 mmhos/cm.

بالإضافة إلى كونها أكثر كفاءة من أنظمة التنقيط، يمكن استخدام القلل دون الحاجة إلى إمدادات مياه مفلترة مضغوطة. يمكن صنع أواني الطين بمواد ومهارات متوفرة محليًا وهي أقل إتلافاٌ من قبل الحيوانات وأيضاً أقل انسداداً بسبب الحشرات التي من شأنها أن تسبب هذا الإنسداد بالاواني مقارنة بأنظمة التنقيط. وأخيرًا قد تحتاج الأواني الطينية إضافةالماء مرة واحدة فقط كل بضعة أيام أو مرة واحدة في الأسبوع. وهذا يجعلها مثالية للمزارعين المنشغلين بمحاصيل أخرى أو اللذين لديهم أطفالاً و مسؤوليات منزلية أو حتى اللذين يعملون بعيداً عن منازلهم معظم أيام الأسبوع.

إن إستخدام الري بالقُلة يسمح بتحسين التربة فقط للمحاصيل وليس للاعشاب الضارة، أفادت معظم الدراسات التي اجريت على أنظمة الزراعة التقليدية أن ما يقارب 30% من العمالة يذهب لإزالة الاعشاب الضارة والتخلص منها، وهذه النسبة ممكن أن تفيد في أعمال أكثر إنتاجية من ذلك.

توصلت دراسة أجريت في الهند إلى أن الوزن الجاف للأعشاب الضارة بلغ 62 كجم/هكتار فقط باستخدام الري بالتنقيط مقارنة بـ 465 كجم/هكتار باستخدام الري بالأحواض. وفي أحد التجارب التي قمت باجرائها كان هنالك القليل من الكيلوغرامات من الأعشاب الضارة بدلاً من الأطنان لكل هكتار.

كيف نبدأ؟

  1. قم بشراء القُلة، وتأكد بقيامك باختبار بسيط أن المياه تتسرب عبر المسامات وتبلل الجزء الخارجي.
  2. قم بحفر حفرة أوسع واعمق من القُلة واخلط بها السماد والسماد العضوي ان امكن.
  3. قم بملئ الحفرة بالماء واتركها تُستنزف.
  4. قم بغرس ساق النبات داخل الحفرة بعد إضافة كمية كافية من التربة بها، قم بتثبيت الساق على ارتفاع حوالي 5 سم فوق السطح.
  5. إملأ الحفرة حول القُلة وقم بتثبيت التربة حولها بالضغط عليها.
  6. إملا الوعاء بالماء وقم بتغطية فتحة الوعاء بغطاء أو حجر.
  7. راقبها في اليوم التالي وانظر لأي مسافة تصل رطوبة التربة بعيداً عن القلة.
  8. قم بإعادة ملئ القُلة حسب الحاجة.
  9. وبعد انتهاء الموسم، قم بتنظيف الاواني وتخزينها بالمقلوب (رأساً على عقب).

إن أي صانع فخار جيد سيكون قادرًا على صنع الأواني الفخارية. إذا كانت الأواني الفخارية مصنوعة خصيصًا للري، فلا ينبغي تسخين الطين إلى درجة حرارة أعلى من 1000درجة مئوية وإلا ستكون المسامية محدودة، وإن قمنا بإضافة سيراميك مطحون إلى الخليط فإن هذا سيؤدي إلى زيادة المسامية. إن من عيوبالأواني الفخارية  التكلفة العالية والجهد  اللازم لصنعها. وممكن حدوث انسداد بالمسام  بتلك الأواني بمرور الوقت وتتطلب التنظيف والنقع بالخل أواعادتها لنار الافران.

clay pot irrigation

سيكون من الممتع أن تقوم بتجربة الري باستخدام القُلة، نظام فعال للنباتات المزروعة في أصص، قم بتجربة لزراعة البقدونس والنعناع والثوم والكزبرة والباذنجان والطماطم الكرزية، أو حتى الازهار المنزلية. أو يمكنك تجربتها في حديقة منزلك الصغيرة.

نبذة عن ديفيد باينبريدج

هو عالم بيئة، مؤلف، معلم ومؤرخ مرموق. مجالات خبرته للذكر وليس الحصر هي إعادة تأهيل الصحاري والزراعة المستدامة والاقتصاد البيئي والمزيد. له من الخبرة أكثر من 50 عاماً ولديه أكثر من 300 مقال والعديد من الكتب وفصول الكتب. يواصل باينبريدج الريادة في مجال الاستدامة.

ترجمة: ماجدة هلسه

أردنية متعددة الإهتمامات، لديها من الخبرة ما يقارب السبعة وعشرون عاماً في مجال المالية والإدارة في المؤسسات المحلية والدولية، وتعمل ماجدة حالياً مع التعاون الدولي الالماني كموظفة مالية. ومع ذلك كله وعلى الصعيد التطوعي، فإن لديها شغفاً كبيراً بالترجمة في كافة المواضيع والمجالات، وقد بُني هذا الشغف بالخبرة الشخصية والعملية على مدى هذه السنين.

Note: The English version of the article is available at this link.

Nabatea and The Neglected Global Energy Crises

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Climate change is bringing new challenges to communities around the world. These include nearly three billion people worldwide who depend on solid fuels for household cooking and heating.[i] In Africa, the proportion of residents dependent on solid fuels is increasing and is almost 80%. In Southeast Asia, 61% of the population still utilize solid fuels. More than a third of the people in the Eastern Mediterranean also use solid fuel—primarily wood and charcoal. Social unrest and natural disasters can lead to years long power outages that force everyone back to the basics of fuel wood and charcoal.[ii] With permanent reconstruction of the devastated power grid of Puerto Rico still pending seven years after hurricane damage, outages have become longer and more recurrent in recent years.[iii]

nabatean kingdom

Lessons from the past can help improve energy and resource management today and for the future. The ancient Nabataeans used a wide range of energy resources. Their expertise enabled the capital city of Petra to prosper and support as many as 30,000 people two thousand years ago. Much can be learned from their energy management. While some studies of energy use at that time in Rome and Pompeii have been done, the analysis of energy use in the provinces away from Rome has lagged.[iv]

The energy needs of the Nabataeans were met with a wide range of resources and this diversity provided resilience in the face of climate variability and social change. The primary energy resources were biofuels with no net impact on climate change gases. Their complex energy system provided some protection against scarcity caused by drought, locusts, wildfire, war or disease. The primary energy sources included fuelwood, shrubwood and prunings, olive oil, olive pomace, grape vine prunings, charcoal, dung, food and fodder.

Many of these biofuels are little-studied and not widely understood or promoted today. A better understanding of these resources can help families and communities in Ethiopia, Sudan, Syria, Mali, Mexico, Lebanon, India, Nigeria, Chile, Laos and many other countries and regions where people still rely on these fuels.[v] The Nabataean’s expertise can be of use for many today to more sustainably manage energy while restoring forests and shrub lands.[vi]

Fuelwood

Wood was one of the most important sources of energy for the households, visitors, and businesses in Nabatea. The gross caloric potential of fuelwood is around 20 GigaJoules per ton of dry wood[vii] (a gigajoule is about equal to 26 liters of gasoline or 277 kilowatt hours). Nabatean fuel woods included oak, pistachio, juniper, hawthorne and other trees. The Nabataean demand for fuelwood and timber eventually eliminated most of the Jordanian forests. Repeated cutting with resprouting (coppicing) can work if the harvest is not too severe or repeated too often. Oaks (Quercus sp.) (baluwt) were preferred fuel wood and also provide food.[viii] Acorns are still harvested and eaten in many places including Portugal, the American Southwest, and Korea.[ix]

nabatean energy sources

We don’t know for certain how much fuelwood they used, but we can look at comparable areas where fuel wood was the primary energy source. A study in the American Southwest found annual fuelwood consumption in Cochise County, Arizona in the late 1800s was about 2 cubic meters or 1.5 tons per capita.[x],[xi] Detailed studies of the potential fuelwood harvest from a comparable blue oak woodlands in California found it could provide about 10 tons of fuelwood per hectare.[xii] Thousands of hectares would have been cut every year to support the Nabatean capital and towns. Making charcoal at 10-20% efficiency would consume even more trees.

Camels or donkeys could bring fuelwood from sources far from town. A camel could carry 200 kg, a mule 150, and a donkey 25-50. Carts may also have been used on the high road Via Nova Traiana. People would carry fuelwood in as well. The forests would have gotten smaller and more barren year by year If we could go back in time, we would likely see ‘wood’ roads reaching out from Petra. As a resident of Tombstone, Arizona, noted in the late 1800s, “There were wood roads fanning out from Tombstone like the veins of a leaf, some were just tracks, others well worn.”[xiii] When the demand for fuelwood is very high the roots of trees and shrubs are dug up and burned.[xiv] Roots can be good fuelwood but their removal eliminates the possibility of resprouts and increases the risk of erosion, floods and landslides. As fuelwood costs rose, the use of prunings, pomace, dung, and imported fuels would have intensified.

Looking at the highlands and mountains of Jordan today it is hard to imagine the forests of pistachio, juniper, oak, cypress and other drought-tolerant trees and shrubs that once graced the hillsides and wadis.[xv]. The forests and woodlands have been severely reduced by human activity.[xvi],[xvii] But they can and should be restored.[xviii]

nabatean energy sources

Shrub Wood and Pruning

Some shrub species were much better fuels than others and were also over-harvested. The nitrogen fixing Retama raetam has been a highly desirable fuel for cooking and heating from ancient times. Retam shrubs could provide 2-15 kg of wood each.[xix] If a household relied on shrub wood they might use 10 kg of shrubs from a hectare every month.[xx] The capital city of Petra alone might have used 4,000 ha of shrubs a year. Retam was also favored because it was not grazed heavily, but would be eaten by camels. Artemisia sieberi (sheeh) is still stockpiled in some areas for cooking fuel.[xxi] Research has made it clear that restoring healthy shrub lands is possible with water harvesting and grazing management. Within five years after planting there can be a considerable harvest every year. Multipurpose species are preferred. They can provide fuel, food, fodder and medicine.

Olive trees and other fruit and nut trees in the Nabataean agroforestry system were pruned regularly. The heating value of olive pruning debris ranged from 16.7 GJ/ton to 19.8 GJ/ton.[xxii] Olive orchards will yield 1-4 tons of olive pruning per hectare or about 50 GJ ha. However, soil health will decline if most of the organic matter is removed every year.

Nabataean wine was traded overseas and achieved a formidable international reputation. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, dated around 280 CE, contains a contract for labor in a vineyard.[xxiii] Grapevines are pruned to improve yield and quality. The energy content of grapevine prunings ranges from to 7-18 GJ/ton. The fuel quality depends on the cultivar, the season, and management. The basket method (kouloura) of pruning is ideally suited to arid, windy sites, and might have been used.[xxiv],[xxv] Pruning might amount to 1.4-1.8 tons per hectare[xxvi] for perhaps 19 GJ/ha. Vine prunings are still used for heating and as fuel in bakery and restaurant ovens.[xxvii] Vine prunings are the preferred fuel for piglet roaster restaurants in the Bairrada region of Portugal.[xxviii]

Olive oil, Olive Pressing Waste (pomace, Jift)

Olives were an essential resource in Nabatea and olive presses have been found at almost all agricultural production sites in Jordan.[xxix] Thirty-one presses[xxx] were identified in the Brown University Petra Archeological Project.[xxxi] An ancient receipt from Umm al-Biyara and abundant traces of Nabataean agroforestry suggest the main commodity being produced was not grain but olives. Olive trees were planted on slopes and terraces as well as in more favorable locations. Olive trees were also grown within the towns and cities.[xxxii] Wild subtypes of olives (Olea europaea subsp. oleaster) are still found in the area.[xxxiii]

The olives were collected, crushed, and pressed to release the oil.[xxxiv] Olive oil has an energy content of 39 GJ/ton.[xxxv] The old, traditional olive production system in dry-farmed areas around the Mediterranean uses tree spacing from 7.6–18.3 meters apart with 30–173 trees/ha.[xxxvi] Olive yields were between 1.1–4.5 t/ha with a long delay before full production (15–40 years) and significant changes in yield due to alternate bearing.

On average 100 kg of olives will produce 14-20 kg of oil. Each 1,000 kg of olives brought in to a mill may also result in 500 kg of olive pomace (jift).[xxxvii] The amount and the oil content of the jift depend on the growing season, ripeness, cultivar, crushing method and type of press. Jift is well suited for heating and cooking as well as firing pottery and lime kilns.[xxxviii] The caloric value of jift runs from 17-24 GJ/ton.[xxxix] Olive pits also burn well with 19 GJ/ton.[xl]

Traditional rain-fed olive plantations could yield 3.5-7 tons of jift per hectare each year. Olive orchards would provide jift for use at homes, bakeries, potteries, and lime-makers. Replanting the olive groves with water harvesting should be possible. In other countries native multipurpose trees with fruits, nuts, pollen and nectar for bees, and other resources can be substituted.

Charcoal

Charcoal was used for cooking, heating water and coffee, space heating, metalwork, and smelting in Nabatea. Charcoal was expensive and this limited its use in pottery kilns. But olive pits were used as a fuel and were found in the Zurrabah kiln excavations.[xli] Charcoal would have been made in both pits and mounds. Oak was preferred, but other species and most small shrubs and prunings could be used. A ton of branches or shrubs could yield as much as 150 to 250 kg of charcoal.[xlii]

Charcoal vendors probably imported significant amounts of charcoal to the capital city, but competition for charcoal by the copper mining and smelting area of Feinan may have kept the price high . Like Rome, charcoal and wood would have been taken to a central market in Petra and sold, first by wholesalers to retailers who could afford to buy relatively large quantities, and then to individual householders, who could not. Records show that in 301 CE Rome the wholesale cost of a mule load of 140 kg of firewood was the same as a retail bundle of just 7 kg.[xliii] A profitable return!

The Bedou ‘Ammareen (sub-clan of al-Sa’idiyeen) of the Petra region were known in the nineteenth century for their charcoal trade with Egypt.[xliv] Charcoal could provide a small source of cash for individuals as well. One of EA’s friend’s grandfather would chop down a Pistacia atlantica while traveling, make charcoal, then trade it and wild game for soap, tea, sugar, and other household goods in Nablus (350 km away). Charcoal production undoubtedly contributed to the deforestation across Nabatea. Charcoal has received more attention than other biofuels, but much more could be done.[xlv]

Dung

Animal dung has been used for heating, cooking, and firing pottery in many areas of the world.[xlvi] Camels played an essential role for most of the Nabatean era.[xlvii] A camel will produce about 8 kg per day.[xlviii] It is dry and odorless and has an energy value of 12-14 GJ/ton.[xlix] Camels were essential in the spice trade caravans and a caravan might have hundreds or even thousands of camels. Camels were also bred and trained for war and the Nabatean cavalry may have had thousands of camels in service. These numbers were not matched again until WWI when the Imperial Camel Corps had 20,000 camels.[l]

camel cavalry nabateans

Donkey dung is also fairly dry and odorless. Sheep, goats and oxen dung are also useful fuels when dried. In preparation for cooking bread or meals an oven, even today, may be heated overnight with slabs of sheep dung set around the exterior. In some areas women would store large supplies of this sheep dung.

Animal dung can be used to fire pottery without kilns in a process called bon-firing (aka clamp firing, raku). Sheep dung has been used this way by ancient and modern potters in the American Southwest.[li] Pots fired in the domestic hearth may leave no trace.[lii] Potters in villages in northern Jordan still make pottery this way.[liii] Bon-firing temperatures in a range of studies have reached between 600-900°C.[liv] Dung would also be in demand as a fertilizer for gardens and crops and burning much of the dung would eventually result in diminished soil fertility and crop yields.

Food for people

The agroforestry system developed in Nabatea was a complex mix of olives, grape vines, fruits, vegetables and grains.[lv] Wheat cultivars and barley were the important grains. The yield of emmer wheat might have been 1-3 tons per hectare. The city of Petra needed 15 tons of wheat a day and 5,000 tons a year. Grain imports probably came from the Negev highlands or even further away. Studies suggest the total area of agricultural fields in the Central Negev Highlands may well have been more than 4,000 ha.[lvi] Harvests over hundreds of years with little return of micronutrients to the soil no doubt led to lower yield and less nutritious crops.[lvii] The water harvesting techniques they developed and used to grow crops in the desert are needed around the world.[lviii]

Fodder for Animals

Most of the energy demand for the animals in Nabatea was met by open grazing. Grains might be fed at times. The soils around towns and cities were quickly laid bare by intensive grazing but highly mobile herds could seek out the best pasture even many kilometers from towns. Edible shrubs and tree seedlings would gradually disappear. Browse lines would be clear on shrubs and trees.

nebkha restoration

Overview: How Nabatean energy demand was met

Household uses: Fuelwood, shrub wood, charcoal, pomace, pruning, dung, solar energy, olive oil, etc.

Bread and Bakery: Fuelwood, shrub wood, pomace, pruning, dung

Cooking and lighting: Fuelwood, shrub wood, charcoal, pomace, olive oil

Heating and hypocaust heating: Fuelwood, charcoal, pomace

Pottery: pomace, olive pits, pruning

Smelting: Charcoal from fuelwood and shrub wood

Food for animals: Browse and feed

Food for people: Wheat, barley and other foods

Olive oil for food and lighting

Burning these fuels in the confined wadis, towns and capital would have led to significant air pollution problems. On a still day in winter it would have been very smoky. This would have adverse health impacts.

Nabataean energy use was ultimately not sustainable, but the remarkable performance of their resource management over the centuries is impressive and in many ways has never been duplicated. The take away lessons from Nabatea is to make full use of water, ’wastes’ as resources, anda wide range of species. This complexity increases resilience. Hopefully this first attempt at understanding energy use in Nabatea will lead to more detailed research providing  revelations as informative as those from the engineering analysis of the water system of Petra.[lix]

Application of Nabataean soil and water management strategies could double or triple the current wheat and barley yield per hectare in Jordan. Today, Jordan produces only 100,000 tons of wheat a year with yields of just a ton per hectare.[lx] In contrast, the Nabateans used a wheat variety that may have produced 3.5 tons/ha in the Negev.[lxi] Rediscovering the Nabataean expertise could help keep some of the money now spent importing grain in Jordan in Jordan, reducing vulnerability and creating jobs. Mobile kilns and briquette makers could produce high quality charcoal from shrub wood and prunings.

Supporting rediscovery of the complex agroforestry systems developed in Petra could help olive and fruit and nut growers, vineyards, and farms prosper while improving biodiversity and providing renewable biofuels.[lxii],[lxiii] The issue of securing local energy supplies is often critical for areas and countries with limited supplies of fossil fuel. Countrywide and regional instability around the world makes local self-reliance ever more important.

The restoration of shrubs and trees can result in more local, renewable biofuels and will also sequester carbon.[lxiv] Restoration of trees, shrubs and crops will also reduce the risk from flash floods. Better control of grazing with revived use of the hima system can foster recovery of ecosystems.[lxv]

Social factors, economic pressure, tenure (land use rights), and neglect of the value of Nature’s Services have also rarely been considered. Some of the critical social aspects of ancient Petra are unknowable due to a lack of records. Obstacles to the spread and adoption of innovative systems are often complex, but not insoluble.[lxvi] Research over the last fifty years has demonstrated the feasibility of restoring damaged arid lands, but many challenges, primarily socio-cultural, remain.[lxvii],[lxviii],[lxix] Getting local communities engaged is critical.

The experts of ancient Nabatea have much to offer the World in inspiration and technique. Climate change and political instability makes action to restore lands and improve use of biofuels ever more important.[lxx]

References

[i]. “12 Countries Predominately Burning Solid Fuels For Energy.” World Atlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/12-countries-predominately-burning-solid-fuels-for-energy.html

[ii]. Al-Mughrabi Nidal. “Gazans turns to firewood as energy prices soar.” Reuters. January 5, (2023). https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/gazans-turns-firewood-energy-prices-soar-2023-01-05/

[iii]. Acevido, Nicole. “Outraged Puerto Rico residents express frustration over widespread power outages.” NBC News. June 13 (2024).

[iv]. Veal, Robyn J. “Wood and Charcoal for Rome: Towards an Understanding of Ancient Regional Fuel Economics. In The Economic Integration of Italy: Rural Communities in a Globalizing World, edited by Tymon de Haas and Gijs Tol. Brill. (2017): 388-406. Veal, Robyn J. “Fuel Supplies for Pompeii. Pre-Roman and Roman Charcoals of the Casa delle Vestali.” In Charcoals from the Past: Cultural and Paleoenvironmental Implications, edited by G. Fiorentino and D. Magri. Oxford: Archaeopress BAR Series 1807. (2008): 287-297.

[v] Taylor, Matthew J. 2017. Energy for the world’s kitchens: biomass for survival in the past, present, and future. pp.11-22. In: Solomon, B. and K. Calvert (eds). Handbook on the Geographies of Energy. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK.

[vi] Bainbridge, David A. “Go Big! The Challenge of Large Scale Restoration of the Badiya.” EcoMENA July 18. (2024). https://www.ecomena.org/challenge-of-large-scale-restoration-of-badiya/

[vii]. Lyons, Gerard J., Frank Lunny, and Hugh P. Pollock. “A Procedure for Estimating the Value of Forest Fuels.” Biomass 8, no. 4 (1985): 283-300.

[viii]. Younker, Randall W. “Balanophagy and the Bedrock Industries of Ancient Jordan.” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 5 (1995): 685-691.

[ix]. Bainbridge, David A. Acorns as Food. Twain Harte, CA: Sierra Nature Prints, (2006) [1985]. https://works.bepress.com/david_a_bainbridge/17/

[x]. Bahre, Conrad and Charles F. Hutchinson. 1985. The impact of historic fuelwood cutting on the semi-desert woodlands of Southeastern Arizona. Journal of Forest History. 29(4):175-186.

[xi]. Bahre, Conrad. A Legacy of Change: Historic Human Impact on Vegetation in theArizona Badlands. University of Arizona Press. (1991). University of Arizona Press. p. 148

[xii]. Standiford, Richard, Douglas McCreary, Sheila Barry, and Larry Forero. 2011. Blue oak stump sprouting evaluated after fuelwood harvest in northern Sacramento Valley. California Agricuture 65(3):148-154. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v065n03p148.

[xiii]. Bahre, Conrad. A Legacy of Change. p. 152.

[xiv]. For an example in the American Southwest, see Havard, V. “The Mezquit.” American Naturalist. 18, no. 5 (1884): 451-459.

[xv]. Soga, Masashi, and Kevin J. Gaston. “Shifting Baseline Syndrome: Causes, Consequences, and Implications.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16, no. 4 (2018): 222-230.

[xvi]. Rollefson, Gary O., and Ilse Köhler-Rollefson. “Early Neolithic Exploitation Patterns in the Levant: Cultural Impact on the Environment.” Population and Environment 13, no. 4 (1992): 243-254.

[xvii]. Marsh, George Perkins. Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action. University of Washington Press, (2003) [1884].

[xviii]. Hattar, Mussa. 2021. “Desert country Jordan aims for green with 10-million tree campaign.” PhysOrg. March 9. https://phys.org/news/2021-03-country-jordan-aims-green-million.html.

[xix]. Engel, Thomas, and Wolfgang Frey. “Fuel Resources for Copper Smelting in Antiquity in Selected Woodlands in the Edom Highlands to the Wadi Arabah/Jordan.” Flora 191, no. 1 (1996): 29-39.

[xx]. Gintzberger, G. “Seasonal Variation in Above-ground Annual and Perennial Phytomass of an Arid Rangeland in Libya.”Journal of Range Management 39(4) (1986). 348-352.

[xxi]. Addison, Erin. Documenting Deforestation at Sidd al-Ahmar, Petra Region, Jordan: Sadd al-Ahmar 1924-2011. Berlin: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2011 (1993):

[xxii]. García Martín, J. F., M. Cuevas, C.-H. Feng, P. Álvarez Mateos, M. Torres García, and S. Sánchez. 2020. “Energetic valorisation of olive biomass: olive-tree pruning, olive stones and pomaces.” Processes (MDPI). 8 no. 5 (2020). 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050511

[xxiii]. Select Papyri, 1.18. Contract for labour in a vineyard and lease of a fruit garden.

http://www.attalus.org/docs/select1/p18.html

[xxiv]. Xyrafis, Efstratios Guillaume, Gregory A. Gambetta, and Katerina Biniari. “A Comparative Study on Training Systems and Vine Density in Santorini Island: Physiological, Microclimate, Yield and Quality Attributes.” Oeno One 57, no. 3 (2023):141-152.

[xxv]. Vagelis Gavalas, 2023, personal communication. Gavalas Winery, Megalochori, Santorini, Greece.

[xxvi]. Stratos Xyrafis, personal communication.

[xxvii]. Otero, Iago, Martí Boada, and J. David Tàbara. “Social–Ecological Heritage and the Conservation of Mediterranean Landscapes under Global Change. A Case Study in Olzinelles (Catalonia).” Land Use Policy 30 (2013): 25-37.

[xxviii]. Alves, Célia A., Margarita Evtyugina, Mário Cerqueira, Teresa Nunes, Márcio Duarte, and Estela Vicente. “Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by the Stacks of Restaurants.” Air Quality Atmosphere & Health 8 (2015): 401-412.

[xxix]. ‘Amr, Khairieh. “Wadi Musa in der Antike.” In Petra. Wunder in der Wüste, edited by Antikenmuseum and Sammlung Ludwig, 142-147. Berlin: Schwabe Verlag, (2012)

[xxx]. It is not always easy to tell a wine press from an oil press site.

[xxxi]. Knodell, Alex R., Susan E. Alcock, Christopher A. Tuttle, Christian F. Cloke, Tali Erickson-Gini, Cecelia Feldman, Gary O. Rollefson, Micaela Sinibaldi, Thomas M. Urban, and Clive Vella. “The Brown University Petra Archaeological Project: Landscape Archaeology in the Northern Hinterland of Petra, Jordan.” American Journal of Archaeology 121, no. 4 (2017): 621-683.

[xxxii]. Bouchaud, C., Christiane Jacquat, and Danièle Martinoli. “Landscape Use and Fruit Cultivation in Petra (Jordan) from Early Nabataean to Byzantine Times (2nd Century BC – 5th Century AD).” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 26 (2017): 223-244.

[xxxiii]. Barazani, Oz, Arnon Dag and Zachary Dunseth. “The History of Olive Cultivation in the Southern Levant.” Frontiers in Plant Science 14 (2023): 1131557.

[xxxiv]. Rojas-Sola, José Ignacio, and Carlos Ramírez-Arrazola. “Engineering Graphics Applied to the Study of Old Methods of Olive Oil Production.” Scientific Research and Essays 6, no. 11 (2011): 2379-2388

[xxxv]. Wikipedia, s.v. “Energy Content of Biofuel.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#:~:text=The%20energy%20content%20in%20the,%2C%20sugarcane%2C%20or%20sweet%20sorghum.

[xxxvi]. Vossen, Paul. “Olive Oil: History, Production, and Characteristics of the World’s Classic Oils.” HortScience 42 no. 5 (2007) 1093-1100.

[xxxvii]. Khdair, Adnan, and Ghaida Abu-Rumman. “Sustainable Environmental Management and Valorization Options for Olive Mill Byproducts in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region.” Processes 8, no. 6 (2020): 671.

[xxxviii]. Rowan, Erica. “Olive Oil Pressing Waste as a Fuel Source in Antiquity.” American Journal of Archaeology 119, no. 4 (2015): 465-482.

[xxxix]. Tawarah, Khalid M., and Rajaa A. Rababah. “Characterization of Some Jordanian Crude and Exhausted Olive Pomace Samples.” Green and Sustainable Chemistry 3 (2013): 146-162.

[xl]. Martín, Juan Francisco García, Manuel Cuevas, Chao-Hui Feng, Paloma Álvarez Mateos, Miguel Torres García, and Sebastián Sánchez. “Energetic Valorisation of Olive Biomass: Olive-Tree Pruning, Olive Stones and Pomaces.” Processes 8, no. 5 (2020): 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050511/.

[xli]. Mason, James R.B., and Khairieh ‘Amr. “Nabataean Bowl Production: Interim Summary of Developments.” Levant 25 (1993): 207. https://www.academia.edu/18928176/

[xlii]. Encinas, Enrique Enciso, Rosa Colomer, Pedro Regato Pajares, and Francisco M. Martinez. “Thermal Biomass for Lebanon.” Mediterranean Mosaics Project (MM). Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR), (2015).

[xliii]. Kropff, Antony. “An English Translation of the Edict on Maximum Prices, Also Known as the Price Edict of Diocletian.” Academia.edu, April 27, (2016).

[xliv]. Erin Addison, personal communication.

[xlv] Virginia Cooperative Extension. 2024. Charcoal making resources. https://ext.vt.edu/natural-resources/charcoal/charcoalmaking.html

[xlvi]. Miller, N.F. “The Use of Dung as Fuel: An Ethnographic Example and an Archaeological Application.” Paléorient 10, no. 2 (1984): 71-79.

[xlvii]. Studer, Jacqueline and  Annegret Schneider. “Camel use in the Petra region, Jordan: 1st century BC to 4th century AD.” Persee/. MOM Éditions Année (2008) 49 pp. 581-596.

[xlviii]. Kakar, Razique. “Camel’s Manure.” ArkBiodiv, February 2, (2016).

[xlix]. Shanableh, Abdallah, Mohamed Abdallah, Adel Tayara, Chaouki Ghenai, Mohammed Kamil, Abrar Inayat, and Ahmad Shabib. “Experimental Characterization and Assessment of Bio- and Thermo-Chemical Energy Potential of Dromedary Manure.” Biomass and Bioenergy 148 (2021): 106058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106058/.

[l]. The Imperial Camel Corps. Formation and expansion, URL: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/camel-corps/formation, (Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 2-Sep-(2014). https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/camel-corps/formation

[li]. Ward, Andy. “How Pueblo Pottery Is Made.” Ancient Pottery. https://ancientpottery.how/how-pueblo-pottery-is-made/

[lii]. Smith, A., L. Proctor, T.C. Hart, and G.J. Stein. “The Burning Issue of Dung in Archaeobotanical Samples: A Case Study Integrating Macro-Botanical Remains, Dung Spherulites, and Phytoliths to Assess Sample Origin and Fuel Use at Tell Zeidan, Syria.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 28 (2018).

[liii]. Ali, N. “The Relationship Between Subsistence and Pottery Production Areas: An Ethnoarchaeological Study in Jordan.” Leiden Journal of Pottery Studies 21 (2005): 119-128.

[liv]. Sidoroff, Maria-Louise. “Experimental Bonfirings of Pottery with Camel Dung Fuel, Jordan, July 2018.” EXARC 2019, no. 2 (2019). https://exarc.net/ark:/88735/10427/.

[lv]. Bouchaud, C., Christiane Jacquat, and Danièle Martinoli. “Landscape Use and Fruit Cultivation in Petra (Jordan) from Early Nabataean to Byzantine Times (2nd Century BC – 5th Century AD).” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 26 (2017): 223-244.

[lvi]. Ashkenazi, E., Y. Avni, and G. Avni. “A Comprehensive Characterization of Ancient Desert Agricultural Systems in the Negev Highlands of Israel.” Journal of Arid Environments 86 (2012): 55-64.

[lvii]. Ben Mariem, S., Angie L. Gámez, Luis Larraya. et al. “Assessing the evolution of wheat grain traits during the last 166 years using archived samples.” Scientific Reports. 10(1): 21828. (2020).

[lviii]. Evenari, Michael, Leslie Shanan, and Nephtali Tadmore. 1982 [1971]. The Negev: The Challenge of a Desert. Harvard University Press.

[lix]. Ortloff, Charles R. “Hydraulic Engineering at 100 BC-AD 300 Nabataean Petra (Jordan).” Water 12, no. 12 (2020): 3498. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123498/.

[lx]. USDA Foreign Agriculture Service. “Jordan Wheat Area Yield.” IPAD Country Summary. https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/countrysummary/Default.aspx?id=JO&crop=Wheat

[lxi]. Blum, Abraham, G. Golan, J. Mayer, and B. Sinmena. “The Drought Response of Landraces of Wheat from Northern Negev Desert in Israel.” Euphytica 43, no.1 (1989): 87-96.

[lxii]. Nature Conservation Monitoring Center. “Mainstreaming Biodiversity in the Sylvo-Pastoral and Rangeland Landscapes in Pockets of Poverty in Jordan.” Jordan: IFAD, GEF, Ministry of Agriculture. (2015).

[lxiii]. Sandri, Serena, Hussam Hussein and Nooh Alshyab. “Sustainability of the energy sector in Jordan: Challenges and Opportunities.” Sustainability 12. (2020). 10465. doi:10.3390/su122410465

[lxiv]. Bainbridge, David A. “Carbon Sequestration with Mesquite (Prosopis sp.) in an Agroforestry Setting.” Association for Temperate Agroforesty 26, no. 4 (2020).

[lxv]. Myint, Moe, and Vanja Westerberg. “An Economic Valuation of a Large-Scale Rangeland Restoration Project through the Hima System in Jordan.” Report for the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative by International Union for Conservation of Nature, Nairobi, Kenya, (2014).

[lxvi]. Hallsworth, E.G. Anatomy, Physiology and Psychology of Erosion. Wiley, (1987).

[lxvii]. Bainbridge, David A. A Guide to Desert and Dryland Restoration. Island Press. (2007).

[lxviii]. Abella. Scott. Restoring desert ecosystems. In Stuart K. Allison and Stephen D. Murphy. eds. Routledge Handbook of Ecological and Environmental Restoration. Routledge. (2017): 158-172.

[lxix]. Bainbridge, David A. and John Tizler. “Recreating Mesquite Mounds (Nebkhas) in the Colorado Desert.” Restoration Notes 2, no. 1 (2014). https://works.bepress.com/david_a_bainbridge/36/.

[lxx]. Cook-Patton, Susan C., C. Ronnie Drever, Bronson W. Griscom, Kelley Hamrick, Hamilton Hardman, Timm Kroeger, Pablo Pacheco, Shyla Raghav, Martha Stevenson, Chris Webb, Samantha Yeo, and Peter W. Ellis. “Protect, Manage and Then Restore Lands for Climate Mitigation. Nature Climate Change 11 (2021): 1027-1034.

Easy Guide to Become an Environmental Writer

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Environment is becoming one of the main topics in the global media. How do you identify current issues concerning and how to choose the right words to convey information to your audience as correctly as possible?

There are many challenges the world is facing today. These are problems that need to be solved immediately. Pollution of the ozone layer, exhaustion of the freshwater supply, climate change and global warming, pollution of the world’s oceans, depletion of natural resources, destruction of flora and fauna — these are all topics that you, as a paper writer, can cover to get the world talking about them and taking action.

How to Become an Environmental Writer

Where can I study to become an environmental writer?

You won’t find this kind of specialization at any institution. The first step to achieving your goal is to earn a bachelor’s degree. Environmental writers typically earn a bachelor’s degree in journalism, communications, English, or writing.

In parallel with their university studies, they additionally learn ecology and related sciences. They choose a vector at the beginning of their studies and follow it. Other environmental writers have earned a degree in ecology or related fields but have still studied writing. Classes in biology, chemistry, geography, earth science, and engineering are also useful for developing a deep understanding of environmental issues.

How to interest the public?

Writers often encounter such difficulty as a lack of interest from the audience. Not everyone is willing to read about ecology or watch TV programs about environmental protection, especially if it happens somewhere far away. How can you change this?

The reader needs to understand how the problem the writer describes affects them personally, how they can get sick if they breathe dirty air, and how water quality will affect their health and their children’s health. An emotional response is what generates real interest. So write about what is happening in your country, right under your nose, and relevant to everyone in your country.

It is important not just to describe the news but to present the situation more broadly. Keep in mind different contexts: religious, political, strategic, cultural, how it will affect water and food quality, flora and fauna. It is important to remember the international context as well.

How to prove the correlation?

The data that writers and scientists working in the environmental sector have to work with is often modeled. We don’t know exactly how it will or could be, but we model the situation based on all the information we currently know.

For example, we know that it takes upto 500 years for a plastic bag to decompose. But this data is modeled because, in fact, none of us have observed the same bag for a thousand years to draw that conclusion from personal experience.

Air is the “invisible killer.” Approximately two million people in the world die each year from heart disease worsened by polluted air. It can be as much about harmful emissions from factories and plants as it is about, for example, cutting down the forests that used to purify the air. But how do we prove this correlation if we know that ecology is a process?

environmental education

You, as a writer, can use infographics. You need to take data on the number of hospital admissions for heart disease in a particular city A over a certain period, and the data on the number of businesses built and run, or – the number of green spaces cut down over the same period. Then try overlaying these graphs one on top of the other, and you can see how much one really correlates with the other.

Act, not react

The function of an environment writer is not to react but to act. Don’t wait until a disaster has already happened and react to it as an established fact. Act before then, before it’s too late. Write about the problem before it becomes a disaster or an accident. Talk about the conflict of interest, the violations that have been committed, and explain what it could all lead to. Perhaps, then you can avoid disaster and tragedy.

Where to find topics for materials

One option is a calendar of events from the UN. There you can find information about days like Earth Day, Water Day, and so on, and prepare your materials in advance. The UN also publishes its own statistics that you can use in your publications. Of course, you should also monitor news feeds and cooperate with scientists.

there is no planet b

Where do I publish my papers?

It is always difficult for novice ecological writers to find a place to publish their first essays. For starters, you can start with campus newspapers and magazines to add to your portfolio. You can get a job at some newspaper or magazine, or you can try your hand at working remotely by publishing your articles on a variety of websites devoted to the topic.

Check out Jooble if you desire to find a job. There are many vacancies for writers, particularly for environmental ones. The main thing is not to be afraid to press the “submit” button and not to get upset if you get rejected.

Why Eco-Friendly Cars Are Important?

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The transport sector is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions for many countries. The biggest reason why is because of the conventional car, as vehicles account for over half of the emissions from the transportation sector. Your typical car emits carbon dioxide and many other harmful chemicals that are hurting the environment and human health. This makes driving the right vehicle more important than ever.

Driving an eco-friendly vehicle is a great way to help human health and the environment. A green vehicle releases less harmful chemicals into the air, as it emits low carbon compounds when running. Find out the different reasons why eco-friendly cars are so important, and how they can help prevent more damage to the environment.

electric car

Impact of Pollution on the Environment

Car pollution is one of the major causes of global warming. The greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide that cars emit end up trapped in the atmosphere. This has caused temperatures and sea levels worldwide to increase over the years. As car pollution continues to effect global warming, you can also expect storms, floods and droughts to be more severe.

The rise in temperature has caused ice caps and glaciers to melt. This has not only caused sea levels to rise, but also warmer temperatures. It will have an impact on hurricanes as well, as storms increase in strength due to warmer ocean surface temperatures.

The chemicals that vehicles emit also affect the air, soil and water quality. The different chemicals have weakened the ozone layer and caused acid rain. Furthermore, the weakening of the ozone layer exposes the earth to harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Providing further damage is acid rain, which adversely affects crops, forests and all aquatic environments. It releases aluminum in the soil and makes the water in aquatic environments acidic.

How Pollution is Hurting the MENA Region

Look at the MENA region if you want an example of how vehicular pollution is affecting the environment. They have experienced more severe heat waves, longer droughts and more dust storms than ever before. The Middle East and North Africa have also experienced longer and drier seasons. This makes it tougher for farmers to grow crops.

Arab region is among the worst performers in air quality

If conventional cars continue to be the most common source of transportation for humans, the environment will only get worst. The Middle East and North Africa region will only get hotter and drier. Such circumstances may eventually not allow farmers to grow any crops, which means a lot more people will be without work. The area may also become too hot and humid for anyone to live in. It is one of the hottest regions in the world, and temperatures will only continue to rise at this rate.

Pollution and Human Health

The different substances vehicles release in the air not only affect the environment, but also your health. Carbon monoxide and other chemicals that your typical car emits can harm you. The chemicals affect the quality of the air you breathe.

Not having the quality of air that you are supposed to breathe in causes damage to your respiratory system, especially if you suffer from asthma. These gases can also be cancerous. There are numerous cancers caused by outdoor air pollution, and vehicles play a large part in this situation.

Benefits of Eco-Friendly Vehicles

With global warming and health concerns on the rise because of the chemicals cars produce, it is important to buy the right vehicle and sell your clunker. Purchasing an eco-friendly car is the way to go. They are a lot more affordable than they were in the past, and this investment is a way to help your health and the world you live in. Hybrids and electric vehicles are not widely available on car rental fleets yet, however you can check eco friendly car rental before you book to help you make an informed decision when renting a car.

electric cars market in jordan

Hybrids and electric vehicles are “eco-friendly” for a reason. Electric cars do not burn any fuel. They run solely on electricity, which means they don’t release any harmful chemicals into the air you breathe. Hybrids, on the other hand, are different from conventional and electric vehicles. Hybrid cars possess an electric motor and an internal combustion engine, which is what a conventional vehicle runs on. The fact that hybrids possess two engines and rely on electricity more often means that they burn less fuel than your average car.

In any case, whether you obtain an electric car or a hybrid, you still need to apply for car registration before you can drive it legally. So be sure to complete the necessary DMV procedures directly after making your purchase.

The Menace of Plastic Water Bottles

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Plastic water bottles are a common feature in urban life. The availability of water bottles is common and the cost is affordable by all sections of the society due to which its use and misuse has increased manifolds with time. People also provide it for free in mosques and other public locations. It is because of its easy availability that people misuse this resource considering it free, taking a bottle, sipping it, consuming partly and leaving it at the venue or throwing it in garbage bins.

Empty and partially consumed plastic water bottles are collected and thrown away in municipal garbage bins from where it is collected and transported to municipal landfill site. These water bottles have a high carbon footprint and represent enormous wastage of precious water source and misuse of our other fragile resources. In many cases, these water bottles are littered around commercial and religious places.

menace of plastic water bottles

Startling Facts about Plastic Water Bottles

Bottled water is widely used by people from all walks of life and is considered to be convenient and safer than tap water. A person on an average drinks around 2.0 liters of water a day and may consume 4-6 plastic bottles per day.

Infact, UAE has the world’s highest per capita consumption of bottled water of as much as 285 liters per year and a typical UAE resident uses around 450 plastic water bottles each year.

We need to understand the fact that plastic is made from petroleum. 24 million gallons of oil is needed to produce a billion plastic bottles. Plastic takes around 700 years to be degraded. 90% of the cost of bottled water is due to the bottle itself. 80% of plastic bottles produced are not recycled. Globally, plastic recycling rate is very low and major quantities of plastics are being disposed in the landfills, where they stay for hundreds of years not being naturally degraded.

Recycling one ton of plastic saves 5.74 m3 of landfill space and save cost of collection and transportation. Water bottles manufacturing, transportation, distribution and again collection and disposal after its use create enormous pollution in terms of trash generation, global warming and air pollution.

The transportation of bottled water from its source to stores alone releases thousands of tons of carbon dioxide. In addition to the millions of gallons of water used in the plastic-making process, two gallons of water are wasted in the purification process for every gallon that goes into the plastic bottles.

water-bottles-middle-east

The Way Forward

The solution to the menace of plastic water bottles lies in its minimum use and safe disposal. The first step is that once you open a water bottle, you need to completely consume it to fully utilize the resource. Do not throw away plastic bottles as litter.

Alternatively, a flask, thermos or reusable water bottle can be used which can be refilled as required. It is advisable that religious places, hotels, malls, restaurants, conference rooms etc. should have efficient water purification plants and water dispensers to reduce the use of plastic water bottles.

Waste Management Outlook for Qatar

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Qatar is counted among the world’s fastest growing economies as well as richest countries in the world. The rapid industrialization of the country and high population growth generates a lot of wastes in the form of municipal wastes, construction & demolition debris, industrial wastes etc. Annual solid waste generation in Qatar has crossed 2.5 million tons, which corresponds to daily waste generation of more than 7,000 tons per day. The country has one of the highest per capita waste generation worldwide which ranges from 1.6 to 1.8 kg per day.

Solid Waste Management Scenario

Solid waste is mainly comprised of organic materials while the rest of the waste is made up of recyclables like glass, paper, metals and plastics. Waste is collected from across the country and predominantly disposed off in landfills. There are three landfills in Qatar; Umm Al-Afai for bulky and domestic waste, Rawda Rashed for construction and demolition waste, and Al-Krana for sewage wastes. This method of waste disposal by landfill is not a practical solution for a country like Qatar where land availability is limited and only 8% of the waste is recycled.

One of the promising developments in solid waste management sector in recent years has been the creation of Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre (DSWMC) at Mesaieed. This centre is designed to maximize recovery of resources and energy from waste by installing state-of-the-art technologies for separation, pre-processing, mechanical and organic recycling, and waste-to-energy and composting technologies. It will treat 1550 tons of waste per day, and is expected to generate enough power for in-house requirements, and supply a surplus of 34.4 MW to the national grid. 

Government Strategy

The Qatar Government has identified the need for better waste management and has made plans to address this issue in Qatar National Development Strategy 2011-2016. According to this plan the Government proposes to contain the levels of waste generated by households, commercial sites and industry and to recycle much more of the waste generated. Accordingly, the plan prioritizes actions to reduce the pressure on the environment, with the most preferable goal being the avoidance of waste. Where waste cannot be avoided, the preferred goals would be to reduce it, reuse it and recycle it, and the least desirable action is to dispose of materials.

The plan also proposes to initiate new policies to encourage firms to export recycled items and manufacturers to use recycled material. The Government is to consider providing subsidies to encourage more firms to enter the recycling business and public awareness campaigns to encourage waste separation. It also plans to improve collection networks and to provide recycling bins.

To generate new recycling activity sponsored demonstrations and public awareness activities are planned. Citizens will be made aware of the opportunity to use recycled products, such as furniture made from recycled wood or compost produced daily in Mesaieed. Citizens are to be encouraged to see waste reduction and recycling as a duty with the welfare of future generations in mind.

The critical step in establishing a solid waste management plan will be to coordinate responsibilities, activities and planning. The plan, to be aligned with the Qatar National Master Plan, will cover households, industry and commercial establishments, and construction and demolition. The plan will also provide classifications for different types of domestic and non- domestic waste, mapping their sources.

Future Perspectives

When the Qatar National Development Strategy 2011-2016 was conceived, the plant at Mesaieed might have been seen as an ideal solution, but by the time the project was completed the capacity of the plant to handle waste has been overwhelmed. The centre in Mesaieed can treat only 1550 tons of the 7000 tons generated everyday and this is only going to increase in future. Qatar needs a handful of such centers in order to tackle the growing menace of urban wastes.

While steps are being taken to handle waste generated in future, the Government needs to focus on creating mass awareness about 4Rs of waste management viz. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recovery. If this can be achieved then the public can be expected to play its part in helping to reduce the generation of waste and in recycling waste by making the process easier by segregating waste at the source. The public needs to be made aware of its responsibility and duty to the future generations. Since Qatar is predominantly a Muslim country, the government may also take help of Islamic scholars to motivate the population to reduce per capita waste generation.

Improvement in curbside collection mechanism and establishment of material recovery facilities and recycling centres may also encourage public participation in waste management initiatives. After a period of public education and demonstration, segregation-at-source needs to be implemented throughout the country. Legislation needs to be passed to ensure compliance, failure of which will attract a penalty with spot checks by the Government body entrusted with its implementation.

Biogas Potential in the Middle East

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Anaerobic digestion is the natural biological process which stabilizes organic waste in the absence of air and transforms it into biofertilizer and biogas. It is a reliable technology for the treatment of wet, organic waste.  Organic waste from various sources is biochemically degraded in highly controlled, oxygen-free conditions circumstances resulting in the production of biogas which can be used to produce both electricity and heat.

Anaerobic digestion is particularly suited to wet organic material and is commonly used for treating animal manure, organic fraction of MSW, sewage and industrial effluents. Anaerobic digestion is a unique treatment solution for organic wastes as it can  deliver  positive  benefits  related  to  multiple  issues,  including  renewable  energy,  water pollution, and air emissions. Anaerobic digestion of organic wastes is fast gaining popularity as a means to protect the environment and to recycle biodegradable materials efficiently.

biogas in middle east

Many industries produce liquid and solid wastes that are suitable for anaerobic digestion, such as food processing, pharmaceuticals, organic chemicals, paper manufacturing and tannery industries. Some of the wastes might be difficult to digest as a sole substrate, but they can be biochemically degraded in combination with manure or sewage sludge. The combined digestion of different wastes is called co-digestion.

Biogas Potential in the Middle East

There is a large untapped potential for biogas generation in the Middle East which is mainly contributed by municipal solid wastes, sewage, industrial wastes and farm wastes. MSW is the best feedstock because of high organic content in solid wastes in Middle Eastern countries. On an average, more than 50 percent of the municipal waste stream is constituted by biodegradable fraction.

Huge quantity of sewage sludge is produced on daily basis across the region which presents a serious problem due to its high treatment costs and risk to environment and human health. On an average, the rate of wastewater generation is 80-200 litres per person each day. The handling of sewage sludge is one of the most significant challenges for municipal authorities in the Middle East. Anaerobic digestion is among the best methods for management of municipal wastewater worldwide.

biogas potential in middle east

The Middle Eastern region has strong animal population. The livestock sector, in particular sheep, goats and camels, plays an important role in the national economy of the Middle East countries. Many millions of live ruminants are imported into the Middle Eastern countries each year from around the world. The most attractive method of converting animal wastes into useful form is anaerobic digestion which gives biogas that can be used as a fuel for internal combustion engines, to generate electricity from small gas turbines, burnt directly for cooking, or for space and water heating.

The food processing industry in Middle East produces a large number of organic residues and by-products that can be used as biomass energy sources. In recent decades, the fast-growing food and beverage processing industry has remarkably increased in importance in major countries of the Middle East. The mushrooming of hotels, restaurants, fast-food joints and cafeterias in the Middle East region has resulted in the generation of huge quantities of food wastes.

food_waste

The relevance of biogas technology lies in the fact that it makes the best possible utilization of industrial organic waste as a renewable source of clean energy. Diversion of industrial waste from landfill sites and taking it to plants which can turn it into biogas and biofertilizer will ensure that it is treated in such a way that it becomes a useful product instead of a harmful one.