Stepwells are a remarkable and well-proven traditional water management practice, used in the Indian sub-continent and the Middle East, that deserves wider recognition and use. In this article, we will discuss the history and evolution of stepwells.
Stepwells and steptanks have stairs leading from ground level to the bottom of a pool of water.[1] Stepwells cut into the rock or with a masonry or impermeable construction might better be known as steptanks or cisterns. The more important stepwells are porous and linked to the groundwater (aquifer).
To build this kind of system the soil or rock type, depth to groundwater, and construction materials had to be within acceptable ranges. Water seeps from the groundwater through the porous rock and subsoil into the well during dry times. When the pool level rises during the rainy season water from the well helps recharge the groundwater. They can be found in India, Pakistan[2] and Bangladesh[3], and other parts of South Asia and the Middle East.[4],[5]
Stepwells are most common in arid or semi-arid regions where the rainfall varies dramatically by season and year and the depth to groundwater rises and falls.[6] In the area mentioned in the figure below, the depth to groundwater increased 13 meters in one year. The water level would fall even further during long term droughts and recover during intense wet periods with more powerful monsoons.
Stepwells (baori, baoli, bawri, bavadi, बावड़ी vav, اسٹیپ ویل, kalyani) come in almost any shape imaginable, from trenches to troughs, L’s, circles, circular shafts and inverted pyramids.[7] Most had many sets of steps while others had just one. The many flights of stairs enabled many users to fill their pots with water at the same time during peak use. The women who carried the water would have been very strong with daily stepsercise. They usually carried 15 liters (15 kg) of water or more in pots on their heads. A stacked doubled set of pots could make 20 liters or more. A mother and eldest child could carry enough water for a household on minimum use with just one trip.[8] With extreme care or severe shortage 4–6 liters per person day may suffice.[9],[10]
The purpose and ownership of the stepwells varied widely. Some were private, but most were public. First and foremost they provided a secure source of water to drink. Studies have shown that Indian women in rural areas without stepwells can make up to six trips for water a day, requiring 16 kilometers of walking every day.[11] Stepwells could eliminate the effort and risk involved in getting water from a distant spring, river or lake while providing water even during a prolonged drought.
Stepwells were installed in forts to resist sieges and others provided water for caravans on trade routes. Water could also be used to a limited extent by farmers, perhaps just on kitchen gardens. Stepwells were involved in many religious ceremonies (Hindu and Muslim) and cultural events. During the heat of summer the stepwells could provide relief, in some cases people were allowed to wash or swim. Many also provided space for sitting or sleeping in the cool air deep in the well. The wells also provided a place for women to meet and talk, and they must have been alive with children, women, the elderly and travelers.[12]
Thousands of stepwells were once in use in India and many thousand remain, often abandoned.[13],[14] Most were created to collect water during the torrential monsoon rains and then to maintain a water supply into the dry months or years.[15] Many are still in use today.[16] Most were less than 15 meters deep but some were 30 meters or more.[17] The depth to groundwater in Bengaluru City shows the fluctuation that could occur depending on the monsoon rains.[18] Many stepwells were fed by rainwater catchments or nearby waterways. Water from stepwells fed primarily from the aquifer would be filtered through the rocks, clean and safe to drink. They helped keep communities alive during prolonged droughts.
Stepwells represented a large investment of labor and materials. They required considerable skill in design and construction; but used simple materials that could be used and maintained with available resources. The design and engineering for many was done by experts and the work itself called for skilled masons and stepwell specialists.[19] Many stepwells were funded by women. Stepwells resist, but are not immune, to earthquakes and floods.
One of the most magnificent stepwells is the Chand Baori in Abhaneri, Rajasthan. Look at it on Google Earth 7.0073° N, 76.6065° E.[20] (figure 10) It was built by King Chanda of the Nikumbha Dynasty between 800 and 900 AD and was dedicated to Hashat Mata, the Goddess of Joy and Happiness.[21] Its 13 terraces of stairs reach a depth of 30 meters. This stepwell was made of porous volcanic rocks and stones, which allowed water to seep through the rocks and maintain the well. The upper walls are very steep (close to 80°) and the lower walls are closer to 45°. The well provides almost 15,000 cubic meters of storage. If the well went from full to dry it would provide 5,000 person years of water at 8 liters per day.
The magnitude of the work involved is clear. For Chand Baori 15,000 tons of rock and soil were dug and removed. If the Queen’s Pyramid in Giza was inverted it would fit in the Chand Baoli with room to spare. The methods for building step wells would vary by soil and rock type and the function of the well. Paintings show the use of ramps and oxen during similar construction projects at that time, but most of the stepwell labor was probably just people. Even today deep wells are dug and lined with minimal equipment but great effort and skill.[22],[23]
The engineering skill to dig and line a deep well hole should not be under-estimated. In areas with less stable soils it would have been even harder. In areas with stable soils the excavation could be dug and then the rock or brick walls could be gradually built up and backfilled. The use of water levels would allow for accurate placement. Surveying skills were clearly very good. Many stepwells also included rooms, balconies and sculptures on one side. These would have to be ordered and made so the construction could proceed.
In other cases the stepwell may have been built from the top down.[24],[25] The excavation for the well would be dug to the depth of a man’s height. Then a circular wooden platform or form made of non decaying Semal wood or ceramic, would be placed.[26] A rock, block or brick wall would then be erected around the well. Then further digging would be done under the wooden platform, and when the digging was up to a depth of a man, the wall would be placed and then the platform or form would be lowered again. This is similar in some ways to building a caisson for bridge foundations.[27]
Stepwell builders with construction underway must have worried as the monsoon approached. Heavy rains could flood the work area and destabilize walls. In some cases it appears all the blocks were numbered and could be correctly placed even under some water. To reach greater depths the work could only be completed in a prolonged drought. This may have provided much needed work for people when it was so dry the crops failed.
Stepwells met local needs for water with little harm to the environment. Unlike many advanced technologies that attempt to control ecosystems, stepwells emphasize conservation. The tapered construction of the well makes it clear that water conservation is critical as the water level drops, the pool gets smaller and the hauling of water gets harder.
Climate change adds new challenges and potential value for stepwells. If the groundwater falls too far it will no longer feed a well. In many cases stepwells offer an essential water source. They have been neglected while most people have access to a water tap, but these modern water systems are under stress. Increasing variability of rainfall and drought presage growing problems in many dry lands.
A 10 to 15 per cent increase in monsoon precipitation is predicted for some areas of India, but more worrisome is a simultaneous precipitation decline of 5–25 per cent in drought-prone central India and a sharp decline in winter rainfall in northern India.[28] The stepwells act as buffers to these climate changes and extreme events. Resurrecting old stepwells[29] and building new stepwells and stepped tanks would be a very wise investment.
Recognizing this the Rajasthan government, through its flagship program Mukhyamantri Jal Swavalamban Abhiyan, has taken initiatives to make villages self-sufficient in water by reviving the non-functional rainwater harvesting structures.[30] The Bansilalpet stepwell restoration was very impressive, with 2,000 tons of debris removed.
Stepwells could also be of value for rainwater harvesting systems in developed countries, providing a hedge against social and environmental disasters. Houses being built in some areas in Australia now must have a rainwater harvesting system and cistern.[31] This makes sense, but there are advantages for doing this kind of work at the neighborhood scale with stepwells.[32] Stepwells can provide a check on flooding while saving a vital resource.
With thanks for many suggested readings, comments and permission to use images
References
[1] Piplani, M. and Kumar T.. Stepwells: Reviving India’s cultural and traditional water storage systems. pp. 135—142 In C. Ludwig and S. Valdivia Editors. Progress Towards the Resource Revolution. Part 3 – Water and Regional Aspects. Paul Scherrer Institute, World Resources Forum. (2019).
[2] Osman Baig, A.. The deepest stepwell (Baoli) of Pakistan located at Rohtas Fort. May 5. (2013). http://aliusmanbaig.blogspot.com/search/label/stepwell%20in%20pakistan. Accessed Dec 8, 2024/
[3] Miah, A. H. and Zulfiqar, A. Showly. Into the baolis; stepwells of Bangladesh. Journal of History, Art and Archaeology. 1(2):123–136. (2021).
[4] J. B. Rainwater Harvesting Company. Baoli Water Harvesting. JB Group, Kalamasserry, Ernakulam. https://rainwaterharvestingjb.com/rwh-types/baoli-water-harvesting/ Accessed December 6, 2024.
[5] Earis, P. Atlas of Stepwells. 2025. https://stepwells.org/atlas.php?cmbm=1
[6] Singh, A. K., Monitoring groundwater fluctuations over India during Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) and Northeast monsoon using GRACE satellite: Impact on agriculture. Quaternary International. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.10.036 Accessed dec 2, 2024
[7] Lautman, V. India’s Forgotten Step-wells. Merrell (2013).
[8] Upadhyay, B. Gender roles and multiple uses of water in North Gujarat. Working Paper 70. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
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[9] Ortega, A., Rybczynski, W., Ayad, S. Ali, W. and Acheson, A. The Ecol Operation. Minimum Cost Housing Group, McGill University. Montreal. 128 p. (1975).
[10] Lee, R. NASA just recycled 98% of all astronaut pee and sweat on the ISS. News. space.com. June 25 (2023). Accessed Dec 22, 2024.
[11] Barton, A.. Water in Crisis – Women in India. https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-india-women Accessed Dec 18, 2024.
[12] Sushant School of Art and Architecture. Story of Stepwells Bawdi, Baoli & Kalyani- The Forsaken Sisters. Sushant University. (2018). https://sushantuniversity.edu.in/blog/story-of-stepwells-bawdi-baoli-kalyani-the-forsaken-sisters-sushant-school-of-art-and-architecture-sushant-university/
[13] Selvaraj, T., Devadas, P., Perumal, J. L., Zabaniotou, A., Ganesapillai, M. A comprehensive review of the potential of stepwells as sustainable water management structures. Water 14: 2665. (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172665
[14] Pickard, B. The tailor-made guide to the stepwells of Rajasthan. (2024) Oct. 20. https://www.tailormadeitineraries.com/post/the-tailor-made-guide-to-the-stepwells-of-rajasthan. Accessed Dec 4, 2024
[15] Singh, R. B. and Kumar, A. Climate variability and water resource scarcity in drylands of Rajasthan, India. Geoenvironmental Disasters 2:7 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-015-0018-5
[16] Lautman (2013).
[17] Risekult.com. Chand Baori. The deepest memory. Focus On, Lost. November 20th. (2014) http://risekult.com/focus-on/chand-baori-the-deepest-memory
[18]Sekhar, M., Tomer, S. K., Thiyaku, S., Giriraj, P., Murthy, S., and Mehta, V. K. Groundwater level dynamics in Bengaluru City, India. Sustainability 10(1):26. (2018) https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010026
[19] Livingston, M. Steps to Water. Princeton Architectural Press.(2002).
[20] Pahwa, J., Ascents and descents in the 21st Century: restoring Chand Baori. Masters Thesis. 719. (2021). https://digitalcommons.risd.edu/masterstheses/719
[21] Risekult.com.
[22] Jaan, N. 60 Feet Deep Well. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLFl1CC35oQ Accessed January 8, 2025.
[23] Mahilange, Devid. Step by Step Well Digging by hand. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42WpcZUqyy8 (2021) Accessed January 10, 2025.
[24] Stepwells of Ahmedabad. Exhibit. The Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture. The Cooper Union. Nov. 2-Dec. 4. 2020) https://cooper.edu/architecture/events-and-exhibitions/exhibitions/stepwells-ahmedabad. Accessed Dec 4, 2024.
[25] https://safetyculture.com/topics/caisson-construction/
[26] Delhi Urban Art Commission. Rejuvenation of Baoli Precincts City Level Projects. Water & Heritage. January (2018). https://duac.org.in/Upload/City%20Level%20Studies/Landscape%20studies/653977352707470.pdf accessed dec 5 2024
[27] A Tough Place to Work: in a Box, Submerged, Digging out Dirt from a River Bed (1873) https://longstreet.typepad.com/thesciencebookstore/2017/03/brooklyn-bridge.html
[28] Ramesh R., and Yadava M. G. Climate and water resources of India. Current Science 89(5):818–824. (2005).
[29] Ramesh, K. The Journey of Restoring Bansilalpet Stepwell. (2023) Kindle. https://www.amazon.in/Journey-Restoring-Bansilalpet-Stepwell-ebook/dp/B0BT81HVQM
[30] Azmi, F. T. The ancient stepwells helping to curb India’s water crisis. BBC October 12. (2021) https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211012-the-ancient-stepwells-helping-to-curb-indias-water-crisis
[31] Select Water Tanks. Water Tank Regulations Queensland. Help & Advice, Select News. (2022). https://www.selectwatertanks.com.au/water-tank-regulations-queensland/
[32] Fenster, D. Water Harvester: An Invitation to Abundance. Arizona Illustrated. AZPM. November 3. (2022). https://tv.azpm.org/p/season8/2022/7/25/212069-water-harvester-an-invitation-to-abundance/ Accessed December 8, 2024
